From a5f128d459ec92d1531ba045f8121ee9dbe4acae Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Solomon Kurz Date: Mon, 26 Oct 2020 16:45:59 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] add bib --- README.md | 114 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++----------------- 1 file changed, 79 insertions(+), 35 deletions(-) diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index c524ae1..98c1149 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -3,16 +3,18 @@ The ecologocal fallacy: Thorndike’s (1939) example The ecological fallacy occurs when results from group-level analyses are wrongly extended to individuals. The fallacy is often attributed to -William S. Robinson’s (1950) paper [*Ecological Correlations and the -Behavior of -Individuals*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2087176?origin=crossref&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents) +William S. Robinson’s ([1950](#ref-robinsonEcologicalCorrelations1950)) +paper, [*Ecological correlations and the behavior of +individuals*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2087176?origin=crossref&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents), and the name itself first appeared in sociologist Hanan C. Selvin’s -(1958) paper, [*Durkheim’s suicide and problems of empirical +([1958](#ref-selvinDurkheimSuicideProblems1958)) paper, [*Durkheim’s +suicide and problems of empirical research*](https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/33024288/Durkheim-suicide_empirical-research-problems.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DDurkheims_Suicide_and_Problems_of_Empiri.pdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A%2F20191014%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20191014T151247Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Signature=4e9eeb342fa0332cd0f7ed00a4769661cb7c6921e07dd19a763595f037d35dae). However, my fellow psychologists might be happy to learn the idea goes -back at least as far as E. L. Thorndike’s (1939) paper, [*On the fallacy -of imputing the correlations found for groups to the individuals or -smaller groups composing +back at least as far as E. L. Thorndike’s +([1939](#ref-thorndikeFallacyImputingCorrelations1939)) paper, [*On the +fallacy of imputing the correlations found for groups to the individuals +or smaller groups composing them*](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1416673?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents). The purpose of this project is to walk out Thorndike’s original examples. @@ -34,7 +36,10 @@ rooms per person” (p. 124). That is, he was covering the correlation between IQ and the crowdedness of one’s living conditions. Here we’ll copy down the data into a series of -[tribble](https://tibble.tidyverse.org/reference/tribble.html)s. +[tribble](https://tibble.tidyverse.org/reference/tribble.html)s (see +Müller & Wickham, [2020](#ref-R-tibble); also Wickham, +[2019](#ref-R-tidyverse); Wickham et al., +[2019](#ref-wickhamWelcomeTidyverse2019)). ``` r library(tidyverse) @@ -514,7 +519,7 @@ t13 %>% geom_tile(aes(fill = n)) + geom_text(aes(label = n, color = n < 11), show.legend = F) + - scale_fill_viridis_c(option = "C") + + scale_fill_viridis_c(expression(italic(n)), option = "C", limits = c(0, NA)) + scale_color_manual(values = c("black", "white")) + scale_x_continuous(breaks = -4:4, position = "top") + scale_y_continuous(breaks = -4:4, trans = "reverse") + @@ -563,7 +568,7 @@ t13 %>% geom_tile(aes(fill = n)) + geom_text(aes(label = n, color = n < 20), show.legend = F) + - scale_fill_viridis_c(option = "C") + + scale_fill_viridis_c(expression(italic(n)), option = "C", limits = c(0, NA)) + scale_color_manual(values = c("black", "white")) + scale_x_continuous(breaks = -4:5, position = "top") + scale_y_continuous(breaks = -4:5, trans = "reverse") + @@ -573,7 +578,7 @@ t13 %>% ![](README_files/figure-markdown_github/unnamed-chunk-5-1.png) This corresponds to Thorndike’s Table XIII. If you look closely at his -original, you’ll see he miscounted a few cells. No worry. The overall +original, you’ll see he miscounted a few cells. No worry–the overall findings are still sound. Here’s the bivariate correlation for the naïvely combined data. @@ -604,7 +609,7 @@ t13 %>% geom_tile(aes(fill = n)) + geom_text(aes(label = n, color = n < 2), show.legend = F) + - scale_fill_viridis_c(option = "C") + + scale_fill_viridis_c(expression(italic(n)), option = "C", breaks = 1:2) + scale_color_manual(values = c("black", "white")) + scale_x_continuous(breaks = -4:5, position = "top") + scale_y_continuous(breaks = -4:5, trans = "reverse") + @@ -643,7 +648,10 @@ right where we started. That is, the results from group-level data will not necessarily correspond to the results of subgroup- or individual-level data. Proceed -with caution. +with caution. To learn more about this phenomena, see the +([2012](#ref-hamakerWhyResearchersShould2012)) chapter by Hamaker or the +paper by Kievit et al. +([2013](#ref-kievitSimpsonParadoxPsychological2013)). Session info ------------ @@ -652,9 +660,9 @@ Session info sessionInfo() ``` - ## R version 3.6.0 (2019-04-26) + ## R version 3.6.3 (2020-02-29) ## Platform: x86_64-apple-darwin15.6.0 (64-bit) - ## Running under: macOS High Sierra 10.13.6 + ## Running under: macOS Catalina 10.15.3 ## ## Matrix products: default ## BLAS: /Library/Frameworks/R.framework/Versions/3.6/Resources/lib/libRblas.0.dylib @@ -667,25 +675,61 @@ sessionInfo() ## [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base ## ## other attached packages: - ## [1] forcats_0.4.0 stringr_1.4.0 dplyr_0.8.3 purrr_0.3.2 - ## [5] readr_1.3.1 tidyr_1.0.0 tibble_2.1.3 ggplot2_3.2.1 - ## [9] tidyverse_1.2.1 + ## [1] forcats_0.5.0 stringr_1.4.0 dplyr_1.0.1 purrr_0.3.4 + ## [5] readr_1.3.1 tidyr_1.1.1 tibble_3.0.3 ggplot2_3.3.2 + ## [9] tidyverse_1.3.0 ## ## loaded via a namespace (and not attached): - ## [1] tidyselect_0.2.5 xfun_0.10 haven_2.1.0 - ## [4] lattice_0.20-38 colorspace_1.4-1 vctrs_0.2.0 - ## [7] generics_0.0.2 htmltools_0.4.0 viridisLite_0.3.0 - ## [10] yaml_2.2.0 utf8_1.1.4 rlang_0.4.0 - ## [13] pillar_1.4.2 glue_1.3.1 withr_2.1.2 - ## [16] modelr_0.1.4 readxl_1.3.1 lifecycle_0.1.0 - ## [19] munsell_0.5.0 gtable_0.3.0 cellranger_1.1.0 - ## [22] rvest_0.3.4 evaluate_0.14 labeling_0.3 - ## [25] knitr_1.23 fansi_0.4.0 broom_0.5.2 - ## [28] Rcpp_1.0.2 scales_1.0.0 backports_1.1.5 - ## [31] jsonlite_1.6 hms_0.4.2 digest_0.6.21 - ## [34] stringi_1.4.3 grid_3.6.0 cli_1.1.0 - ## [37] tools_3.6.0 magrittr_1.5 lazyeval_0.2.2 - ## [40] crayon_1.3.4 pkgconfig_2.0.3 zeallot_0.1.0 - ## [43] xml2_1.2.0 lubridate_1.7.4 assertthat_0.2.1 - ## [46] rmarkdown_1.13 httr_1.4.0 rstudioapi_0.10 - ## [49] R6_2.4.0 nlme_3.1-139 compiler_3.6.0 + ## [1] tidyselect_1.1.0 xfun_0.13 haven_2.2.0 lattice_0.20-38 + ## [5] colorspace_1.4-1 vctrs_0.3.4 generics_0.0.2 htmltools_0.5.0 + ## [9] viridisLite_0.3.0 yaml_2.2.1 utf8_1.1.4 rlang_0.4.7 + ## [13] pillar_1.4.6 glue_1.4.2 withr_2.2.0 DBI_1.1.0 + ## [17] dbplyr_1.4.2 modelr_0.1.6 readxl_1.3.1 lifecycle_0.2.0 + ## [21] munsell_0.5.0 gtable_0.3.0 cellranger_1.1.0 rvest_0.3.5 + ## [25] evaluate_0.14 labeling_0.3 knitr_1.28 fansi_0.4.1 + ## [29] broom_0.5.5 Rcpp_1.0.5 scales_1.1.1 backports_1.1.9 + ## [33] jsonlite_1.7.0 farver_2.0.3 fs_1.4.1 hms_0.5.3 + ## [37] digest_0.6.25 stringi_1.4.6 grid_3.6.3 cli_2.0.2 + ## [41] tools_3.6.3 magrittr_1.5 crayon_1.3.4 pkgconfig_2.0.3 + ## [45] ellipsis_0.3.1 xml2_1.3.1 reprex_0.3.0 lubridate_1.7.8 + ## [49] assertthat_0.2.1 rmarkdown_2.1 httr_1.4.1 rstudioapi_0.11 + ## [53] R6_2.4.1 nlme_3.1-144 compiler_3.6.3 + +References +---------- + +Hamaker, E. L. (2012). Why researchers should think "within-person": A +paradigmatic rationale. In *Handbook of research methods for studying +daily life* (pp. 43–61). The Guilford Press. + + +Kievit, R., Frankenhuis, W. E., Waldorp, L., & Borsboom, D. (2013). +Simpson’s paradox in psychological science: A practical guide. +*Frontiers in Psychology*, *4*. + + +Müller, K., & Wickham, H. (2020). *tibble: Simple data frames*. + + +Robinson, W. S. (1950). Ecological correlations and the behavior of +individuals. *American Sociological Review*, *15*(3). + + +Selvin, H. C. (1958). Durkheim’s Suicide and Problems of Empirical +Research. *American Journal of Sociology*, *63*(6), 607–619. + + +Thorndike, E. L. (1939). On the fallacy of imputing the correlations +found for groups to the individuals or smaller groups composing them. +*The American Journal of Psychology*, *52*(1), 122–124. + + +Wickham, H. (2019). *tidyverse: Easily install and load the +’tidyverse’*. + +Wickham, H., Averick, M., Bryan, J., Chang, W., McGowan, L. D., +François, R., Grolemund, G., Hayes, A., Henry, L., Hester, J., Kuhn, M., +Pedersen, T. L., Miller, E., Bache, S. M., Müller, K., Ooms, J., +Robinson, D., Seidel, D. P., Spinu, V., … Yutani, H. (2019). Welcome to +the tidyverse. *Journal of Open Source Software*, *4*(43), 1686. +