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DASE.tex
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% Options for packages loaded elsewhere
\PassOptionsToPackage{unicode}{hyperref}
\PassOptionsToPackage{hyphens}{url}
%
\documentclass[
]{book}
\title{Data Analysis in Software Engineering using R}
\author{Daniel Rodriguez and Javier Dolado}
\date{2021-10-10}
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb}
\usepackage{lmodern}
\usepackage{iftex}
\ifPDFTeX
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
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\else % if luatex or xetex
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\defaultfontfeatures{Scale=MatchLowercase}
\defaultfontfeatures[\rmfamily]{Ligatures=TeX,Scale=1}
\fi
% Use upquote if available, for straight quotes in verbatim environments
\IfFileExists{upquote.sty}{\usepackage{upquote}}{}
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\usepackage[]{microtype}
\UseMicrotypeSet[protrusion]{basicmath} % disable protrusion for tt fonts
}{}
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\@ifundefined{KOMAClassName}{% if non-KOMA class
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\usepackage{parskip}
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}{% if KOMA class
\KOMAoptions{parskip=half}}
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\usepackage{xcolor}
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\IfFileExists{bookmark.sty}{\usepackage{bookmark}}{\usepackage{hyperref}}
\hypersetup{
pdftitle={Data Analysis in Software Engineering using R},
pdfauthor={Daniel Rodriguez and Javier Dolado},
hidelinks,
pdfcreator={LaTeX via pandoc}}
\urlstyle{same} % disable monospaced font for URLs
\usepackage{color}
\usepackage{fancyvrb}
\newcommand{\VerbBar}{|}
\newcommand{\VERB}{\Verb[commandchars=\\\{\}]}
\DefineVerbatimEnvironment{Highlighting}{Verbatim}{commandchars=\\\{\}}
% Add ',fontsize=\small' for more characters per line
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% Correct order of tables after \paragraph or \subparagraph
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% Allow footnotes in longtable head/foot
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\makesavenoteenv{longtable}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\makeatletter
\def\maxwidth{\ifdim\Gin@nat@width>\linewidth\linewidth\else\Gin@nat@width\fi}
\def\maxheight{\ifdim\Gin@nat@height>\textheight\textheight\else\Gin@nat@height\fi}
\makeatother
% Scale images if necessary, so that they will not overflow the page
% margins by default, and it is still possible to overwrite the defaults
% using explicit options in \includegraphics[width, height, ...]{}
\setkeys{Gin}{width=\maxwidth,height=\maxheight,keepaspectratio}
% Set default figure placement to htbp
\makeatletter
\def\fps@figure{htbp}
\makeatother
\setlength{\emergencystretch}{3em} % prevent overfull lines
\providecommand{\tightlist}{%
\setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}\setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{5}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\ifLuaTeX
\usepackage{selnolig} % disable illegal ligatures
\fi
\usepackage[]{natbib}
\bibliographystyle{apalike}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
{
\setcounter{tocdepth}{1}
\tableofcontents
}
\hypertarget{welcome}{%
\chapter*{Welcome}\label{welcome}}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Welcome}
This \textbf{Data Analysis in Software Engineering (DASE)} book/notes will try teach you how to do data science with R in Software Engineering.
It is a work in progress.
\textbf{Acknowledgments}
Projects:
\begin{itemize}
\item
PRESI: TIN2013-46928-C3
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
amuSE TIN2013-46928-C3-2-R
\item
PERTEST TIN2013-46928-C3-1-R
\end{itemize}
\item
QARE: TIN2016-76956-C3
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
BadgePeople: TIN2016-76956-C3-3-R
\item
TESTEAMOS: TIN2016-76956-C3-1-R
\end{itemize}
\item
Network SBSE (\href{https://www.uco.es/investigacion/proyectos/SEBASENet/index.php?title=P\%C3\%A1gina_principal}{SEBASENet}): TIN2015-71841-REDT
\item
TestBUS PID2019-105455GB-C32
\end{itemize}
This work is licensed under the \href{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/}{Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommtercial-NoDerivs 3.0} United States License.
\hypertarget{part-introduction-to-the-r-language}{%
\part{Introduction to the R Language}\label{part-introduction-to-the-r-language}}
\hypertarget{r-intro}{%
\chapter{Introduction to R}\label{r-intro}}
The goal of the first part of this book is to get you up to speed with the basics of \textbf{R} as quickly as possible.
\hypertarget{installation}{%
\section{Installation}\label{installation}}
Install the latest preview version for getting all features.
Follow the procedures according to your operating system.
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
Linux: You need to have \texttt{blas} and \texttt{gfortran} installed on your Linux, for installing the \texttt{coin} package.
\item
\emph{Rgraphviz} requires installation from \texttt{source("http://bioconductor.org/biocLite.R")}, then \texttt{biocLite("Rgraphviz")}.
\item
Uncomment the following lines for installing all missing packages (this will take some time):
\end{itemize}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# listofpackages \textless{}{-} c("arules","arulesViz", "bookdown", "ggplot2", "vioplot", "UsingR", "fpc", "reshape", "party", "C50", "utils", "rpart", "rpart.plot", "class", "klaR", "e1071", "popbio", "boot", "dplyr", "doParallel", "gbm", "DMwR", "pROC", "neuralnet", "igraph", "RMySQL", "caret", "randomForest", "tm", "wordcloud", "xts", "lubridate", "forecast", "urca", "glmnet", "FSelector", "pls", "emoa", "foreign" )}
\CommentTok{\# newpackages \textless{}{-} listofpackages[!(listofpackages \%in\% installed.packages()[,"Package"])]}
\CommentTok{\# if(length(newpackages)\textgreater{}0) install.packages(newpackages,dependencies = TRUE)}
\CommentTok{\# }
\CommentTok{\# \# install from archive}
\CommentTok{\# if (!is.element("rgp", installed.packages()[,1]))}
\CommentTok{\# \{ install.packages("https://cran.r{-}project.org/src/contrib/Archive/rgp/rgp\_0.4{-}1.tar.gz", }
\CommentTok{\# repos = NULL)}
\CommentTok{\# \}}
\DocumentationTok{\#\# end of installing packages}
\CommentTok{\# in Linux you may need to run several commands (in the terminal) and install additional libraries, e.g. }
\CommentTok{\# sudo R CMD javareconf}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install build{-}essential}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install libxml2{-}dev}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install libpq}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install libpq{-}dev}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install {-}y libmariadb{-}client{-}lgpl{-}dev}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install texlive{-}xetex}
\CommentTok{\# sudo apt{-}get install r{-}cran{-}rmysql}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\hypertarget{r-and-rstudio}{%
\section{R and RStudio}\label{r-and-rstudio}}
\begin{itemize}
\item
R is a programming language for statistical computing and data analysis that supports a variety of programming styles. See \href{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)}{R in Wikipedia}
\item
R has multiple online resources and books.
\item
\href{https://google.github.io/styleguide/Rguide.xml}{R coding style}
\item
\href{https://www.r-bloggers.com/}{R-Bloggers}
\item
Getting help in R
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\href{https://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/rstudio-ide.pdf}{RStudio cheat sheet}
\item
\href{http://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/base-r.pdf}{Base R cheat sheet}
\item
\href{https://www.rstudio.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/advancedR.pdf}{Advanced R cheat sheet}
\item
\href{https://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/data-visualization-2.1.pdf}{Data Visualization cheat sheet}
\item
\href{https://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/rmarkdown-2.0.pdf}{R Markdown cheatsheet}
\item
{[}R Markdown Basics{]} (\url{http://rmarkdown.rstudio.com/authoring_basics.html})
\item
\href{https://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/reticulate.pdf}{Python with R and Reticulate Cheatsheet}
\item
\href{https://github.com/rstudio/cheatsheets/raw/master/caret.pdf}{caret}
\item
\href{https://rstudio.com/resources/cheatsheets/}{All cheatsheets and translations}
\item
\texttt{help("\ \ \ \ ")} command
\end{itemize}
\item
R as a calculator. Console: It uses the command-line interface.
\item
This document is an RMarkdown document. See \url{bookdown.org}
\end{itemize}
Examples:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{x }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{1}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{3}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{4}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{5}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{6}\NormalTok{) }\CommentTok{\# Create ordered collection (vector)}
\NormalTok{y }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}}\NormalTok{ x}\SpecialCharTok{\^{}}\DecValTok{2} \CommentTok{\# Square the elements of x}
\FunctionTok{print}\NormalTok{(y) }\CommentTok{\# print (vector) y}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 1 4 9 16 25 36
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{mean}\NormalTok{(y) }\CommentTok{\# Calculate average (arithmetic mean) of (vector) y; result is scalar}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 15.16667
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{var}\NormalTok{(y) }\CommentTok{\# Calculate sample variance}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 178.9667
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{lm\_1 }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{lm}\NormalTok{(y }\SpecialCharTok{\textasciitilde{}}\NormalTok{ x) }\CommentTok{\# Fit a linear regression model "y = f(x)" or "y = B0 + (B1 * x)"}
\CommentTok{\# store the results as lm\_1}
\FunctionTok{print}\NormalTok{(lm\_1) }\CommentTok{\# Print the model from the (linear model object) lm\_1}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = y ~ x)
##
## Coefficients:
## (Intercept) x
## -9.333 7.000
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{summary}\NormalTok{(lm\_1) }\CommentTok{\# Compute and print statistics for the fit}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = y ~ x)
##
## Residuals:
## 1 2 3 4 5 6
## 3.3333 -0.6667 -2.6667 -2.6667 -0.6667 3.3333
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) -9.3333 2.8441 -3.282 0.030453 *
## x 7.0000 0.7303 9.585 0.000662 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 3.055 on 4 degrees of freedom
## Multiple R-squared: 0.9583, Adjusted R-squared: 0.9478
## F-statistic: 91.88 on 1 and 4 DF, p-value: 0.000662
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# of the (linear model object) lm\_1}
\FunctionTok{par}\NormalTok{(}\AttributeTok{mfrow=}\FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{)) }\CommentTok{\# Request 2x2 plot layout}
\FunctionTok{plot}\NormalTok{(lm\_1) }\CommentTok{\# Diagnostic plot of regression model}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\includegraphics{DASE_files/figure-latex/unnamed-chunk-2-1.pdf}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{help}\NormalTok{(lm)}
\NormalTok{?lm}
\FunctionTok{apropos}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"lm"}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] ".colMeans" ".lm.fit" "colMeans" "confint.lm"
## [5] "contr.helmert" "dummy.coef.lm" "glm" "glm.control"
## [9] "glm.fit" "KalmanForecast" "KalmanLike" "KalmanRun"
## [13] "KalmanSmooth" "kappa.lm" "lm" "lm_1"
## [17] "lm.fit" "lm.influence" "lm.wfit" "model.matrix.lm"
## [21] "nlm" "nlminb" "predict.glm" "predict.lm"
## [25] "residuals.glm" "residuals.lm" "summary.glm" "summary.lm"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{example}\NormalTok{(lm)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
##
## lm> require(graphics)
##
## lm> ## Annette Dobson (1990) "An Introduction to Generalized Linear Models".
## lm> ## Page 9: Plant Weight Data.
## lm> ctl <- c(4.17,5.58,5.18,6.11,4.50,4.61,5.17,4.53,5.33,5.14)
##
## lm> trt <- c(4.81,4.17,4.41,3.59,5.87,3.83,6.03,4.89,4.32,4.69)
##
## lm> group <- gl(2, 10, 20, labels = c("Ctl","Trt"))
##
## lm> weight <- c(ctl, trt)
##
## lm> lm.D9 <- lm(weight ~ group)
##
## lm> lm.D90 <- lm(weight ~ group - 1) # omitting intercept
##
## lm> ## No test:
## lm> ##D anova(lm.D9)
## lm> ##D summary(lm.D90)
## lm> ## End(No test)
## lm> opar <- par(mfrow = c(2,2), oma = c(0, 0, 1.1, 0))
##
## lm> plot(lm.D9, las = 1) # Residuals, Fitted, ...
\end{verbatim}
\includegraphics{DASE_files/figure-latex/unnamed-chunk-2-2.pdf}
\begin{verbatim}
##
## lm> par(opar)
##
## lm> ## Don't show:
## lm> ## model frame :
## lm> stopifnot(identical(lm(weight ~ group, method = "model.frame"),
## lm+ model.frame(lm.D9)))
##
## lm> ## End(Don't show)
## lm> ### less simple examples in "See Also" above
## lm>
## lm>
## lm>
\end{verbatim}
\begin{itemize}
\item
R script. \# A file with R commands \texttt{\#\ comments} \texttt{source("filewithcommands.R")} \texttt{sink("recordmycommands.lis")} \texttt{savehistory()}
\item
From command line:
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
Rscript\\
\item
Rscript file with \texttt{-e} (e.g.~\texttt{Rscript\ -e\ 2+2})\\
\item
To exit R: \texttt{quit()}
\end{itemize}
\item
Variables. R is case sensitive
\end{itemize}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{var1 }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \DecValTok{1}\SpecialCharTok{:}\DecValTok{10}
\NormalTok{vAr1 }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \DecValTok{11}\SpecialCharTok{:}\DecValTok{20}
\NormalTok{var1}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{vAr1 }
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
\end{verbatim}
\begin{itemize}
\item
Operators
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
assign operator \texttt{\textless{}-}\\
\item
sequence operator, for example: \texttt{mynums\ \textless{}-\ 0:20}
\item
arithmetic operators: + - = / \^{} \%/\% (integer division) \%\% (modulus operator)
\end{itemize}
\item
The workspace. Objects.
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\texttt{ls()} \texttt{objects()} \texttt{ls.str()} lists and describes the objects\\
\item
\texttt{rm(x)} delete a variable. E.g., \texttt{rm(totalCost)}
\item
\texttt{s.str()}
\item
\texttt{objects()}
\item
\texttt{str()} The structure function provides information about the variable
\end{itemize}
\item
RStudio, RCommander and RKWard are the well-known IDEs for R (more later).
\end{itemize}
\begin{center}\rule{0.5\linewidth}{0.5pt}\end{center}
\begin{itemize}
\item
Four \# (`\#\#\#\#') create an \emph{environment} in RStudio. An environment binds a set of names to a set of values. You can think of an environment as a bag of names.
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\href{http://adv-r.had.co.nz/Environments.html\#env-basics}{Environment basics}
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
\includegraphics[width=0.75\linewidth]{figures/environments}
Working directories:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# set your working directory}
\CommentTok{\# setwd("\textasciitilde{}/workingDir/")}
\FunctionTok{getwd}\NormalTok{()}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "/home/drg/Projects/DASE"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# record R commands:}
\CommentTok{\# sink("recordmycommands.txt", append = TRUE)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{center}\rule{0.5\linewidth}{0.5pt}\end{center}
\hypertarget{basic-data-types}{%
\section{Basic Data Types}\label{basic-data-types}}
\begin{itemize}
\item
\texttt{class(\ )}
\item
logical: \texttt{TRUE}, \texttt{FALSE}
\item
numeric, integer:
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\texttt{is.numeric(\ \ )}
\item
\texttt{is.integer(\ \ )}\strut \\
\end{itemize}
\item
\texttt{character}
\end{itemize}
Examples:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\ConstantTok{TRUE}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{TRUE}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "logical"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\ConstantTok{FALSE}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] FALSE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\ConstantTok{NA} \CommentTok{\# missing}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] NA
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{NA}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "logical"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{T}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{F}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] FALSE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\ConstantTok{NaN}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] NaN
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{NaN}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "numeric"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# numeric data type}
\DecValTok{2}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 2
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "numeric"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FloatTok{2.5}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 2.5
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{2L }\CommentTok{\# integer}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 2
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(2L)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "integer"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.numeric}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.numeric}\NormalTok{(2L)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.integer}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{2}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] FALSE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.integer}\NormalTok{(2L)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.numeric}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{NaN}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{itemize}
\item
data type coercion:
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\texttt{as.numeric(\ \ )}
\item
\texttt{as.character(\ \ )}\strut \\
\item
\texttt{as.integer(\ \ )}
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
Examples:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{truenum }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{as.numeric}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{TRUE}\NormalTok{)}
\NormalTok{truenum}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 1
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(truenum)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "numeric"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{falsenum }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{as.numeric}\NormalTok{(}\ConstantTok{FALSE}\NormalTok{)}
\NormalTok{falsenum}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 0
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{num2char }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{as.character}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{55}\NormalTok{)}
\NormalTok{num2char}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "55"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{char2num }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{as.numeric}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"55.3"}\NormalTok{)}
\NormalTok{char2int }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{as.integer}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"55.3"}\NormalTok{)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\hypertarget{mising-values}{%
\subsection{Mising values}\label{mising-values}}
\begin{itemize}
\tightlist
\item
\texttt{NA} stands for Not Available, which is not a number as well. It applies to missing values.
\item
\texttt{NaN} means `Not a Number'
\end{itemize}
Examples:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\ConstantTok{NA} \SpecialCharTok{+} \DecValTok{1}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] NA
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{mean}\NormalTok{(}\FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{5}\NormalTok{,}\ConstantTok{NA}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{7}\NormalTok{))}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] NA
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{mean}\NormalTok{(}\FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{5}\NormalTok{,}\ConstantTok{NA}\NormalTok{,}\DecValTok{7}\NormalTok{), }\AttributeTok{na.rm=}\ConstantTok{TRUE}\NormalTok{) }\CommentTok{\# some functions allow to remove NAs}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 6
\end{verbatim}
\begin{center}\rule{0.5\linewidth}{0.5pt}\end{center}
\hypertarget{vectors}{%
\section{Vectors}\label{vectors}}
Examples:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{phases }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"reqs"}\NormalTok{, }\StringTok{"dev"}\NormalTok{, }\StringTok{"test1"}\NormalTok{, }\StringTok{"test2"}\NormalTok{, }\StringTok{"maint"}\NormalTok{)}
\FunctionTok{str}\NormalTok{(phases)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## chr [1:5] "reqs" "dev" "test1" "test2" "maint"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{is.vector}\NormalTok{(phases)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{thevalues }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{15}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{60}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{30}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{35}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{22}\NormalTok{)}
\FunctionTok{names}\NormalTok{(thevalues) }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}}\NormalTok{ phases}
\FunctionTok{str}\NormalTok{(thevalues)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## Named num [1:5] 15 60 30 35 22
## - attr(*, "names")= chr [1:5] "reqs" "dev" "test1" "test2" ...
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{thevalues}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## reqs dev test1 test2 maint
## 15 60 30 35 22
\end{verbatim}
A single value is a vector! Example:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{aphase }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \DecValTok{44}
\FunctionTok{is.vector}\NormalTok{(aphase)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] TRUE
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{length}\NormalTok{(aphase)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 1
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{length}\NormalTok{(thevalues)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 5
\end{verbatim}
\hypertarget{coercion-for-vectors}{%
\subsection{Coercion for vectors}\label{coercion-for-vectors}}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{thevalues1 }\OtherTok{\textless{}{-}} \FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{15}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{60}\NormalTok{, }\StringTok{"30"}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{35}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{22}\NormalTok{)}
\FunctionTok{class}\NormalTok{(thevalues1)}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "character"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{thevalues1}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] "15" "60" "30" "35" "22"
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\CommentTok{\# \textless{}{-} is equivalent to assign ( )}
\FunctionTok{assign}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"costs"}\NormalTok{, }\FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{50}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{100}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{30}\NormalTok{))}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\hypertarget{vector-arithmetic}{%
\subsection{Vector arithmetic}\label{vector-arithmetic}}
The operation is carried out in all the elements of the vector. For example:
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\FunctionTok{assign}\NormalTok{(}\StringTok{"costs"}\NormalTok{, }\FunctionTok{c}\NormalTok{(}\DecValTok{50}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{100}\NormalTok{, }\DecValTok{30}\NormalTok{))}
\NormalTok{costs}\SpecialCharTok{/}\DecValTok{3}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 16.66667 33.33333 10.00000
\end{verbatim}
\begin{Shaded}
\begin{Highlighting}[]
\NormalTok{costs }\SpecialCharTok{{-}} \DecValTok{5}
\end{Highlighting}
\end{Shaded}
\begin{verbatim}
## [1] 45 95 25