From 097b3cd1bb58695c0be882334b42e44ca224f2f3 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Sarah Haggarty <sarahhaggarty@users.noreply.github.com>
Date: Wed, 11 Dec 2024 12:03:42 +0100
Subject: [PATCH] add intermediate properties chapter

# Conflicts:
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 .../kotlin-tour-intermediate-properties.md    | 647 ++++++++++++++++++
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@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
         <toc-element hidden="true" topic="kotlin-tour-intermediate-functions-part-1.md"/>
 		<toc-element hidden="true" topic="kotlin-tour-intermediate-functions-part-2.md"/>
 		<toc-element hidden="true" topic="kotlin-tour-intermediate-functions-part-3.md"/>
+        <toc-element hidden="true" topic="kotlin-tour-intermediate-properties.md"/>
 	</toc-element>
 	<toc-element toc-title="Kotlin overview">
 		<toc-element topic="multiplatform.md"/>
diff --git a/docs/topics/tour/kotlin-tour-intermediate-properties.md b/docs/topics/tour/kotlin-tour-intermediate-properties.md
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+[//]: # (title: Intermediate properties)
+
+In the beginner's tour, you learned how properties are used to declare characteristics of class instances and how to access
+them. This chapter digs deeper into how properties work in Kotlin and explores other ways that you can use them in your code.
+
+## Backing fields
+
+In Kotlin, properties have default `get()` and `set()` functions, known as property accessors, which handle retrieving 
+and modifying their values. While these default functions are not explicitly visible in the code, they are automatically
+generated by the compiler to manage property access behind the scenes. These accessors use a **backing field** to store 
+the actual property value.
+
+Backing fields exist if either of the following is true:
+
+* You use the default `get()` or `set()` functions for the property.
+* You try to access the property value in code by using the `field` keyword.
+
+> `get()` and `set()` functions are also called getters and setters.
+>
+{style="tip"}
+
+For example, this code has the `category` property that has no custom `get()` or `set()` functions and therefore uses the
+default implementations:
+
+```kotlin
+class Contact(val id: Int, var email: String) {
+    val category: String = ""
+}
+```
+
+Under the hood, this is equivalent to this pseudocode:
+
+```kotlin
+class Contact(val id: Int, var email: String) {
+    val category: String = ""
+        get() = field
+        set(value) {
+            field = value
+        }
+}
+```
+{validate="false"}
+
+In this example:
+
+* The `get()` function retrieves the property value from the field: `""`.
+* The `set()` function accepts `value` as a parameter and assigns it to the field, where `value` is `""`. 
+
+Access to the backing field is useful when you want to perform additional logic in your `get()` or `set()` functions 
+without causing an infinite loop. For example, you have a `Person` class with a `name` property:
+
+
+```kotlin
+class Person {
+    var name: String = ""
+}
+```
+
+You want to ensure that the first letter of the `name` property is capitalized, so you create a custom `set()` function
+that uses the [`.replaceFirstChar()`](https://kotlinlang.org/api/latest/jvm/stdlib/kotlin.text/replace-first-char.html) 
+and [`.uppercase()`](https://kotlinlang.org/api/latest/jvm/stdlib/kotlin.text/uppercase-char.html) extension functions. 
+However, if you refer to the property directly in your `set()` function, you create an infinite loop and see a `StackOverflowError`
+at runtime:
+
+```kotlin
+class Person {
+    var name: String = ""
+        set(value) {
+            // This causes a runtime error
+            name = value.replaceFirstChar { firstChar -> firstChar.uppercase() }
+        }
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val person = Person()
+    person.name = "kodee"
+    println(person.name)
+    // Exception in thread "main" java.lang.StackOverflowError
+}
+```
+{validate ="false" kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-stackoverflow"}
+
+To fix this, you can use the backing field in your `set()` function instead by referencing it with the `field` keyword:
+
+```kotlin
+class Person {
+    var name: String = ""
+        set(value) {
+            field = value.replaceFirstChar { firstChar -> firstChar.uppercase() }
+        }
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val person = Person()
+    person.name = "kodee"
+    println(person.name)
+    // kodee
+}
+```
+{kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-backingfield"}
+
+Backing fields are also useful when you want to add logging, send notifications when a property value changes,
+or use additional logic that compares the old and new property values.
+
+For more information, see [Backing fields](properties.md#backing-fields).
+
+## Extension properties
+
+Just like extension functions, there are also extension properties. Extension properties allow you to add new properties
+to existing classes without modifying their source code. However, extension properties in Kotlin do **not** have backing
+fields. This means that Kotlin doesn't provide default `get()` and `set()` functions automatically. You have to write them
+yourself. Additionally, the lack of a backing field means that they can't hold any state.
+
+To declare an extension property, write the name of the class that you want to extend followed by a `.` and the name of
+your property. Just like with normal class properties, you need to declare a receiver type for your property. 
+For example:
+
+```kotlin
+val String.lastChar: Char
+```
+{validate="false"}
+
+Extension properties are most useful when you want a property to contain a computed value without using inheritance.
+You can think of extension properties working like a function that has only a single parameter: the receiver object.
+
+For example, let's say that you have a data class called `Person` that has two properties: `firstName`, `lastName`.
+
+```kotlin
+data class Person(val firstName: String, val lastName: String)
+```
+
+You want to be able to access the person's full name without modifying the `Person` data class or inheriting from it.
+You can do this by creating an extension property with a custom `get()` function:
+
+```kotlin
+data class Person(val firstName: String, val lastName: String)
+
+// Extension property to get the full name
+val Person.fullName: String
+    get() = "$firstName $lastName"
+
+fun main() {
+    val person = Person(firstName = "John", lastName = "Doe")
+
+    // Use the extension property
+    println(person.fullName)
+    // John Doe
+}
+```
+{kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-extension"}
+
+> It's important to note that extension properties can't override existing properties of a class.
+> 
+{style="note"}
+
+Just like with extension functions, we use extension properties widely in the Kotlin standard library. For example,
+consider the [`lastIndex` property](https://kotlinlang.org/api/latest/jvm/stdlib/kotlin.text/last-index.html) for a `CharSequence`.
+
+## Delegated properties
+
+You already learned about delegation in the [Classes and interfaces](kotlin-tour-intermediate-classes-part-1.md#delegation) chapter. You can
+also use delegation with properties to delegate their property accessors to another object. This is useful
+when you have more complex requirements for storing properties that a simple backing field can't handle, such as storing
+values in a database table, browser session, or map. Using delegated properties also reduces boilerplate code because the
+logic for getting and setting your properties is contained only in the object that you delegate to.
+
+The syntax is similar to using delegation with classes but operates on a different level. Declare your property, followed by
+the `by` keyword and the object you want to delegate to. For example:
+
+```kotlin
+val displayName: String by Delegate
+```
+
+Here, the delegated property `displayName` refers to the `Delegate` object for its property accessors.
+
+Every object you delegate to **must** have a `getValue()` operator function, which Kotlin uses to retrieve the value of 
+the delegated property. If the property is mutable, it must also have a `setValue()` operator function for Kotlin to set its value.
+
+By default, the `getValue()` and `setValue()` functions have the following construction:
+
+```kotlin
+operator fun getValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>): String {}
+
+operator fun setValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>, value: String) {}
+```
+{validate="false"}
+
+In these functions:
+
+* The `operator` keyword marks these functions as operator functions, enabling them to overload the `get()` and `set()` functions.
+* The `thisRef` parameter refers to the object **containing** the delegated property. By default, the type is set to `Any?` but you may need to declare a more specific type.
+* The `property` parameter refers to the property that is get or set. You can use this parameter to access information
+like the property's name or type. By default, the type is set to `Any?`. You don't need to worry about changing this in your code.
+
+The `getValue()` function has a return type of `String` by default, but you can adjust this if you want.
+
+The `setValue()` function has an additional parameter `value`, which is used to hold the new value that's assigned to the
+property.
+
+So how does this look in practice? Suppose you want to have a computed property, like a user's display name, that is calculated
+only once because the operation is expensive and your application is performance sensitive. You can use a delegated property
+to cache the display name so that it is only computed once but can be accessed anytime without performance impact.
+
+First, you need to create the object to delegate to. In this case, the object will be an instance of the `CachedStringDelegate` class:
+
+```kotlin
+class CachedStringDelegate {
+    var cachedValue: String? = null
+}
+```
+
+The `cachedValue` property contains the cached value. Within the `CachedStringDelegate` class, add the behavior that you
+want from the `get()` function of the delegated property to the `getValue()` operator function body:
+
+```kotlin
+class CachedStringDelegate {
+    var cachedValue: String? = null
+
+    operator fun getValue(thisRef: Any?, property: Any?): String {
+        if (cachedValue == null) {
+            cachedValue = "Default Value"
+            println("Computed and cached: $cachedValue")
+        } else {
+            println("Accessed from cache: $cachedValue")
+        }
+        return cachedValue ?: "Unknown"
+    }
+}
+```
+
+The `getValue()` function checks whether the `cachedValue` property is `null`. If it is, the function assigns the value of
+`"Default value"` as well as printing a string for logging purposes. If the `cachedValue` property isn't `null`, so it's
+already been computed, another string is printed for logging purposes. Finally, the function uses a safe call to return 
+either the cached value or `"Unknown"` if the value is `null`.
+
+Now you can delegate the property that you want to cache (`val displayName`) to an instance of the `CachedStringDelegate` class:
+
+```kotlin
+class CachedStringDelegate {
+    var cachedValue: String? = null
+
+    operator fun getValue(thisRef: User, property: Any?): String {
+        if (cachedValue == null) {
+            cachedValue = "${thisRef.firstName} ${thisRef.lastName}"
+            println("Computed and cached: $cachedValue")
+        } else {
+            println("Accessed from cache: $cachedValue")
+        }
+        return cachedValue ?: "Unknown"
+    }
+}
+
+class User(val firstName: String, val lastName: String) {
+    val displayName: String by CachedStringDelegate()
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val user = User("John", "Doe")
+
+    // First access computes and caches the value
+    println(user.displayName)
+    // Computed and cached: John Doe
+    // John Doe
+
+    // Subsequent accesses retrieve the value from cache
+    println(user.displayName)
+    // Accessed from cache: John Doe
+    // John Doe
+}
+```
+{kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-delegated"}
+
+This example:
+
+* Creates a `User` class that has two properties in the header: `firstName`, and `lastName`, and one property in the
+class body `displayName`.
+* Delegates the `displayName` property to an instance of the `CachedStringDelegate` class.
+* Creates an instance of the `User` class called `user`.
+* Prints the result of accessing the `displayName` property on the `user` instance.
+
+Note that in the `getValue()` function, the type for the `thisRef` parameter is narrowed from `Any?` type to the object
+type: `User`. This is so that the compiler can access the `firstName` and `lastName` properties of the `User` class.
+
+### Standard delegates
+
+The Kotlin standard library provides some useful delegates for you so you don't have to always create yours from scratch.
+If you use one of these delegates, you don't have to define a `getValue()` and `setValue()` function because these are
+automatically provided by the standard library.
+
+#### Lazy properties
+
+To initialize a property only when it's first accessed, use a lazy property. The standard library provides the `Lazy`
+interface to use as a delegate. To create an instance of the `Lazy` interface, use the `lazy()` function by providing it
+with a lambda expression to execute when the `get()` function is called for the first time. Any further calls of the `get()`
+function return the same result that was provided on the first call.
+
+For example:
+
+```kotlin
+class Database {
+    fun connect() {
+        println("Connecting to the database...")
+    }
+
+    fun query(sql: String): List<String> {
+        return listOf("Data1", "Data2", "Data3")
+    }
+}
+
+val databaseConnection: Database by lazy {
+    val db = Database()
+    db.connect()
+    db
+}
+
+fun fetchData() {
+    val data = databaseConnection.query("SELECT * FROM data")
+    println("Data: $data")
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    // First time accessing databaseConnection
+    fetchData()
+    // Connecting to the database...
+    // Data: [Data1, Data2, Data3]
+
+    // Subsequent access uses the existing connection
+    fetchData()
+    // Data: [Data1, Data2, Data3]
+}
+```
+{kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-lazy"}
+
+In this example:
+
+* There is a `Database` class with `connect()` and `query()` member functions. 
+* The `connect()` function prints a string to console, and the `query()` function accepts an SQL query and returns a list.
+* There is a `dataBaseConnection` property that is a lazy property.
+* The lambda expression provided to the `lazy()` function:
+  * Creates an instance of the `Database` class.
+  * Calls the `connect()` member function on this instance (`db`).
+  * Returns the instance.
+* There is a `fetchData()` function that:
+  * Creates an SQL query by calling the `query()` function on the `dataBaseConnection` property.
+  * Assigns the SQL query to the `data` variable.
+  * Prints the `data` variable to console.
+* The `main()` function calls the `fetchData()` function. The first time it is called, the lazy property is initialized.
+The second time, the same result is returned as the first call.
+
+Lazy properties are useful not only when initialization is resource-intensive but also when a property might not be used
+in your code. Additionally, lazy properties are thread-safe by default, which is particularly beneficial if you are working
+in a concurrent environment.
+
+For more information, see [Lazy properties](delegated-properties.md#lazy-properties).
+
+#### Observable properties
+
+To monitor whether the value of a property changes, use an observable property. An observable property is useful when
+you want to detect a change in the property value and use this knowledge to trigger a reaction. The standard library provides
+the `Delegates` object to use as a delegate.
+
+To create an observable property, you must first import `kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable`. Then, use the `observable()` function
+and provide it with a lambda expression to execute whenever the property changes.
+
+For example:
+
+```kotlin
+import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable
+
+class Thermostat {
+    var temperature: Double by observable(20.0) { _, old, new ->
+        if (new > 25) {
+            println("Warning: Temperature is too high! ($old°C -> $new°C)")
+        } else {
+            println("Temperature updated: $old°C -> $new°C")
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val thermostat = Thermostat()
+    thermostat.temperature = 22.5
+    // Temperature updated: 20.0°C -> 22.5°C
+
+    thermostat.temperature = 27.0
+    // Warning: Temperature is too high! (22.5°C -> 27.0°C)
+}
+```
+{kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-observable"}
+
+In this example:
+
+* There is a `Thermostat` class that contains an observable property: `temperature`.
+* The `observable()` function accepts `20.0` as a parameter and uses it to initialize the property.
+* The lambda expression provided to the `observable()` function:
+  * Has three parameters:
+    * `_`, which refers to the property itself.
+    * `old`, which is the old value of the property.
+    * `new`, which is the new value of the property.
+  * Checks if the `new` parameter is greater than `25`, and depending on the result, prints a string to console.
+* The `main()` function:
+  * Creates an instance of the `Thermostat` class called `thermostat`.
+  * Updates the value of the `temperature` property of the instance to `22.5`, which triggers a print statement with a temperature update.
+  * Updates the value of the `temperature` property of the instance to `27.0`, which triggers a print statement with a warning.
+
+Observable properties are useful not only for logging and debugging purposes. You can also use them for use cases like
+updating a UI or to perform additional checks, like verifying the validity of data.
+
+For more information, see [Observable properties](delegated-properties.md#observable-properties).
+
+## Properties practice
+
+### Exercise 1 {initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" id="properties-exercise-1"}
+
+You manage an inventory system at a bookstore. The inventory is stored in a list where each item represents the quantity
+of a specific book. For example, `listOf(3, 0, 7, 12)` means the store has 3 copies of the first book, 0 of the second,
+7 of the third, and 12 of the fourth.
+
+Write a function called `findOutOfStockBooks()` that returns a list of indices for all the books that are out of stock.
+
+<deflist collapsible="true">
+    <def title="Hint 1">
+        Use the <a href="https://kotlinlang.org/api/core/kotlin-stdlib/kotlin.collections/indices.html"><code>indices</code></a> extension property from the standard library.
+    </def>
+</deflist>
+
+<deflist collapsible="true">
+    <def title="Hint 2">
+        You can use the <a href="https://kotlinlang.org/api/core/kotlin-stdlib/kotlin.collections/build-list.html"><code>buildList()</code></a> function to create and manage a list, instead of manually creating and returning a mutable list. The <code>buildList()</code> function uses a lambda with a receiver, which you learned about in earlier chapters.
+    </def>
+</deflist>
+
+|--|--|
+
+```kotlin
+fun findOutOfStockBooks(inventory: List<Int>): List<Int> {
+    // write your code here
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val inventory = listOf(3, 0, 7, 0, 5)
+    println(findOutOfStockBooks(inventory))
+    // [1, 3]
+}
+```
+{validate="false" kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-exercise-1"}
+
+|---|---|
+```kotlin
+fun findOutOfStockBooks(inventory: List<Int>): List<Int> {
+    val outOfStockIndices = mutableListOf<Int>()
+    for (index in inventory.indices) {
+        if (inventory[index] == 0) {
+            outOfStockIndices.add(index)
+        }
+    }
+    return outOfStockIndices
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val inventory = listOf(3, 0, 7, 0, 5)
+    println(findOutOfStockBooks(inventory))
+    // [1, 3]
+}
+```
+{initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" collapsed-title="Example solution 1" id="kotlin-tour-properties-solution-1-1"}
+
+|---|---|
+```kotlin
+fun findOutOfStockBooks(inventory: List<Int>): List<Int> = buildList {
+    for (index in inventory.indices) {
+        if (inventory[index] == 0) {
+            add(index)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val inventory = listOf(3, 0, 7, 0, 5)
+    println(findOutOfStockBooks(inventory))
+    // [1, 3]
+}
+```
+{initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" collapsed-title="Example solution 2" id="kotlin-tour-properties-solution-1-2"}
+
+### Exercise 2 {initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" id="properties-exercise-2"}
+
+You have a travel app that needs to display distances in both kilometers and miles. Create an extension property for the
+`Double` type called `asMiles` to convert a distance in kilometers to miles:
+
+> The formula to convert kilometers to miles is `miles = kilometers * 0.621371`.
+>
+{style="note"}
+
+|---|---|
+
+```kotlin
+val // write your code here
+
+fun main() {
+    val distanceKm = 5.0
+    println("$distanceKm km is ${distanceKm.asMiles} miles")
+    // 5.0 km is 3.106855 miles
+
+    val marathonDistance = 42.195
+    println("$marathonDistance km is ${marathonDistance.asMiles} miles")
+    // 42.195 km is 26.218757 miles
+}
+```
+{validate="false" kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-exercise-2"}
+
+|---|---|
+```kotlin
+val Double.asMiles: Double
+    get() = this * 0.621371
+
+fun main() {
+    val distanceKm = 5.0
+    println("$distanceKm km is ${distanceKm.asMiles} miles")
+    // 5.0 km is 3.106855 miles
+
+    val marathonDistance = 42.195
+    println("$marathonDistance km is ${marathonDistance.asMiles} miles")
+    // 42.195 km is 26.218757 miles
+}
+```
+{initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" collapsed-title="Example solution" id="kotlin-tour-properties-solution-2"}
+
+### Exercise 3 {initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" id="properties-exercise-3"}
+
+You have a system health checker that can determine the state of a cloud system. However, the two functions it can run 
+to perform a health check are performance intensive. Use lazy properties to initialize the checks so that the expensive
+functions are only run when needed:
+
+|---|---|
+
+```kotlin
+fun checkAppServer(): Boolean {
+    println("Performing application server health check...")
+    return true
+}
+
+fun checkDatabase(): Boolean {
+    println("Performing database health check...")
+    return false
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    // write your code here
+
+    when {
+        isAppServerHealthy -> println("Application server is online and healthy")
+        isDatabaseHealthy -> println("Database is healthy")
+        else -> println("System is offline")
+    }
+    // Performing application server health check...
+    // Application server is online and healthy
+}
+```
+{validate="false" kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-exercise-3"}
+
+|---|---|
+```kotlin
+fun checkAppServer(): Boolean {
+    println("Performing application server health check...")
+    return true
+}
+
+fun checkDatabase(): Boolean {
+    println("Performing database health check...")
+    return false
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val isAppServerHealthy by lazy { checkAppServer() }
+    val isDatabaseHealthy by lazy { checkDatabase() }
+
+    when {
+        isAppServerHealthy -> println("Application server is online and healthy")
+        isDatabaseHealthy -> println("Database is healthy")
+        else -> println("System is offline")
+    }
+   // Performing application server health check...
+   // Application server is online and healthy
+}
+```
+{initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" collapsed-title="Example solution" id="kotlin-tour-properties-solution-3"}
+
+### Exercise 4 {initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" id="properties-exercise-4"}
+
+You're building a simple budget tracker app. The app needs to observe changes to the user's remaining budget and notify
+them whenever it goes below a certain threshold. You have a `Budget` class that is initialized with a `totalBudget` property
+that contains the initial budget amount. Within the class, create an observable property called `remainingBudget` that prints:
+
+* A warning when it is set to lower than 20% of the initial budget.
+* A good news message when the budget is increased from the previous value.
+
+|---|---|
+
+```kotlin
+import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable
+
+class Budget(val totalBudget: Int) {
+    var remainingBudget: Int // write your code here
+}
+
+fun main() {
+    val myBudget = Budget(totalBudget = 1000)
+    myBudget.remainingBudget = 800
+    myBudget.remainingBudget = 150
+    // Warning: Your remaining budget (150) is below 20% of your total budget.
+    myBudget.remainingBudget = 50
+    // Warning: Your remaining budget (50) is below 20% of your total budget.
+    myBudget.remainingBudget = 300
+    // Good news: Your remaining budget increased to 300.
+}
+```
+{validate="false" kotlin-runnable="true" kotlin-min-compiler-version="1.3" id="kotlin-tour-properties-exercise-4"}
+
+|---|---|
+```kotlin
+import kotlin.properties.Delegates.observable
+
+class Budget(val totalBudget: Int) {
+  var remainingBudget: Int by observable(totalBudget) { _, oldValue, newValue ->
+    if (newValue < totalBudget * 0.2) {
+      println("Warning: Your remaining budget ($newValue) is below 20% of your total budget.")
+    } else if (newValue > oldValue) {
+      println("Good news: Your remaining budget increased to $newValue.")
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+fun main() {
+  val myBudget = Budget(totalBudget = 1000)
+  myBudget.remainingBudget = 800
+  myBudget.remainingBudget = 150
+  // Warning: Your remaining budget (150) is below 20% of your total budget.
+  myBudget.remainingBudget = 50
+  // Warning: Your remaining budget (50) is below 20% of your total budget.
+  myBudget.remainingBudget = 300
+  // Good news: Your remaining budget increased to 300.
+}
+```
+{initial-collapse-state="collapsed" collapsible="true" collapsed-title="Example solution" id="kotlin-tour-properties-solution-4"}
+
+## Next step
\ No newline at end of file