I wrote this interpreter to teach myself language design concepts. It is not meant to solve any real-world programming task. This is mainly because there are no input/output concepts except of a print function. Also there is no garbage collector and no optimization for recursion so you will quickly reach the stack size limit of the OS.
Having said that, the language has all the features you need to write simple and complex algorithms and assemble them into larger building blocks: arithmetic, boolean logic, comparision, branching, functions, iteration through recursion.
I created and tested the interpreter only on Debian 10 with GCC 8.3.0
Build
$ ./build
Run test suites
$ ./runtests
Hello world
$ echo '(print "Hello, world!\n")' > hello.dl
$ ./bin/donkey hello.dl
Hello, world!
Include library functions
(The range function in this example is a library function defined in lib/list.dl)
$ echo '(print (range 0 10 (-> x x)) "\n")' > libtest.dl
$ ./bin/donkey lib/* libtest.dl
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
Fibonacci numbers
(define fib (-> n
(if (<= n 1) n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2))))))
(print (fib 9)) ; 34Repeat a string n times
(define repeat (-> src n
(_repeat src "" n)))
(define _repeat (-> src dst n
(if (= 0 n) dst
(_repeat src (append dst src) (- n 1)))))
(print (repeat "oh " 3) "!") ; oh oh oh !Average of list of numbers
(The result may be truncated as there are no floating point numbers)
(define average (-> nums
(locals
count (len nums))
(if (= 0 count) 0
(/ (reduce (-> acc i (+ acc i)) nums 0) count))))
(print (average (list 1 2 3 4 5))) ; 3Integers
The integer is the only number type in the language. There are no floating point numbers.
(print -42)Strings
Allowed escape sequences are \n, \t, \" and \\
(print "hello\n")None
The none type can be created by the none function. There is no literal to create it.
(print (none))Lists
A list can by created by the list function. There is no literal to create a list.
(print (list 1 2 3))
; empty list
(print (list))
; A list can have mixed element types.
(print (list 1 "foo" 3))
; list of lists
(print (list (list 1 2) (list 3 4))) The define function binds a value to a name and sets it to the global scope.
(define text "lorem ipsum")
(print text)Expressions at the last position will be evaluated before they get bound to the name.
(define nums (range 0 5 (-> x x)))
(print nums) ; (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)A function can be created by the -> function, followed by a list of parameter names (optional), followed by the locals function (optional) and finally a body expression (required).
; Function without parameters and without local variables.
(define answer (-> 42))
(print (answer)) ; 42
; Function with one parameter but without local variables.
(define double (-> num (* num 2)))
(print (double 3)) ; 6
; Funcion with one parameter and two local variables
(define first-plus-last (-> nums
(locals
start (head nums)
end (last nums))
(+ start end)))
(print (first-plus-last (list 3 1 2 6))) ; 9Functions are data types too and can be passed to other functions. Passing functions can be done by name or inline.
(define double (-> num (* num 2)))
; Pass function by name.
(print (map double (list 2 3 4))) ; (4, 6, 8)
; Pass function inline.
(print (map
(-> num (* num 2))
(list 2 3 4))) ; (4, 6, 8)The language has dynamic scoping. That means that a global identifier may not only be shadowed by the local variables of the current executing functions but also by the function that has called the current function.
(define x 3)
(define f1 (-> (print x)))
(define f2 (-> x (f1))) ; f2 shadows x
(f1) ; 3
(f2 42) ; 42I don't consider dynamic scoping a good concept and most modern programming languages have static scoping. But it is very easy to implement.
Boolean logic
There is no special data type for boolean values. In a boolean context (such as the if function) the values 0 and none are treated as false, all other values are treated as true.
The not function returns 1 for falsy values and 0 for truthy values.
; 0 and none are the only falsy values and `not` will return 1 for them.
(not 0) ; 1
(not (none)) ; 1
; Everything else will produce 0.
(not (list 1 2 3)) ; 0
(not (list)) ; 0
(not (-> x x)) ; 0The and function takes at least 1 argument and returns the first falsy value of the argument list or the last argument.
(and 1 2 3) ; 3
(and 1 0 3) ; 0
(and 1 2 0) ; 0
(and (list 1 2) "foo" "bar") ; "bar"
(and (none) "foo" "bar") ; <None>The or function takes at least 1 argument. It returns the first truthy value of the argument list ar the last argument.
(or 1 2 3) ; 1
(or 0 3 0) ; 3
(or 0 0 0) ; 0
(or (list 1 2) "foo" "bar") ; (1, 2)
(or (none) "foo" "bar") ; "foo"Comparision
The build-in comparison functions work on intergers, strings, functions and none. To compare lists you have to use the library function equal? (see below). The functions return 0 or 1
; Integer comparision works as you would expect.
(= 3 2) ; 0
(< 3 2) ; 0
(> 3 2) ; 1
(<= 3 2) ; 0
(>= 3 2) ; 1
; String comparision uses the `strcmp` function of the C library.
; It performs a character by character ascii value comparision of the strings.
(= "foo" "bar") ; 0
(< "foo" "bar") ; 0
(> "foo" "bar") ; 1
(<= "foo" "bar") ; 0
(>= "foo" "bar") ; 1
; Comparision of functions work by compare the references (pointers) of the functions.
(define f1 (-> 23))
(define f2 (-> 23))
(= f1 f1) ; 1
(= f1 f2) ; 0
(<= f1 f1); 1
(< f1 f2); This does not make sense so return 0.
; You can pass mixed types to the comparision functions which will result in 0.
(< 1 "foo"); 0Math functions
As said above there are no floating point numbers so the divide function may return truncated numbers.
(+ 5 2)
(- 5 2)
(* 5 2)
(/ 5 2)
(% 5 2) ; moduloType checking
(int? 5) ; 1
(str? "foo") ; 1
(none? (none)) ; 1
(list? (list)) ; 1
(function? (-> x x)) ; 1List functions
All build-in list functions work on strings too.
The head function returns the first element in a list or none if the list is empty.
(head (list 1 2 3)) ; 1
(head (list)) ; noneThe tail function returns the list without the first element or an empty list if the list is empty.
(tail (list 1 2 3)) ; (2, 3)
(tail (list)) ; ()The last function returns the last element in a list or none if the list is empty.
(last (list 1 2 3)) ; 3
(last (list)) ; noneThe init function returns the list without the last element or an empty list if the list is empty.
(init (list 1 2 3)) ; (1, 2)
(init (list)) ; ()The empty? function returns 1 if the list is empty and 0 otherwise.
(empty? (list 1 2 3)) ; 0
(empty? (list)) ; 1The cons function inserts an element to the start of a list.
(cons 1 (list 2 3)) ; (1, 2, 3)
(cons 1 (list)); (1)The append function inserts an element to the end of a list
(append (list 1 2) 3) ; (1, 2, 3)
(append (list) 1) ; (1)For strings the cons and append function behave the same. Also the element to append or prepend does not need to be a single character.
(cons "f" "oobar") ; foobar
(append "f" "oobar") ; foobar
(cons "foo" "bar"); foobar
(append "foo" "bar"); foobarBranching
There is only one construct for branching: the if function. It takes 3 arguments. If the first argument evaluates to true then the second argument will be resolved and returned. Otherwise the third argument will be resolved and returned.
(if 1 2 3) ; 2
(if (< 5 2) 7 8) ; 8
(define items (list 1 2 3))
(if (< (len items) 10)
(append items 42)
items) ; (1, 2, 3, 42)Iteration
There is not special construct for iteration (looping). Iteration must be accomplished by recursion.
For example, here is a function that counts strings in a list.
(define count-strings (-> items count
(if (empty? items) count
(count-strings (tail items)
(if (str? (head items))
(+ count 1)
count)))))
(count-string (list 1 2 "foo" 3 "bar") 0) ; 2Input/Output
As said above, there is no input/ouptut in this language except of the print function.
The print function takes an arbitrary length of arguments of any type and prints its string representations on the screen. The function returns the first argument or none if no arguments where passed.
(print 3) ; prints "3" and returns 3
(print 3 4 5) ; prints "345" and returns 3
(print 3 " " 4 " " 5) ; prints "3 4 5" and returns 3
(print "hello") ; prints "hello" and returns "hello"
(print "hello" "\n") ; prints "hello" and a newline and returns "hello"
(print (list 1 2 3)) ; prints "(1, 2, 3)" and returns (1, 2, 3)
(print (-> x x)) ; prints "<Function>" and returns that function
(print) ; prints nothing and returns `none`Because print returns its first argument you can wrap it around any expression to inspect the resulting value:
(map
(-> x (print (* x x) " "))
(list 1 2 3)) ; prints "1 4 9" and returns (1 4 9)The equal? function takes two arguments of any type and performs a comparision. If the arguments are not lists then the functions behaves like the = build-in function. If the arguments are list then the function checks for deep equality of the lists.
(define items1 (list (list 1 2 3) (list (list 3 4 5))))
(define items2 (list (list 1 2 3) (list (list 3 4 5))))
(define items3 (list (list 1 2 3) (list (list 3 4))))
(equal? items1 items2) ; 1
(equal? items1 items3) ; 0The len function takes a list or a string and returns the count of its elements or characters.
(len (list)) ; 0
(len (list 1 2 3)) ; 3
(len "foobar") ; 6The get functions takes a list or a string and an index and returns the element or character at this index or none.
(get (list) 4) ; `none`
(get "foobar" 0) ; "f"The find function takes a list or a string and an arbitrary value and returns the index of the first occurence of that value or -1 if nothing was found.
(find (list) 3) ; `none`
(find (list 1 2 3) 3) ; 2
(find "foobar" "o") ; 1The range function creates a list of nubmers that can be transformed by the passed function.
(range 0 5 (-> x x)) ; (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)
(range 0 5 (-> x 1)) ; (1, 1, 1, 1, 1)
(range 0 5 (-> x (* x x))) ; (0, 1, 4, 9, 16) The map, filter and reduce (foldl) functions work as known from many other programming languages. They can treat lists and strings.
(map (-> x (* x x)) (list 1 2 3)) ; (1, 4, 9)
(filter (-> c (not (= c "m"))) "lorem ipsum") ; "lore ispu"
(reduce (-> acc x (+ acc x) (list 1 2 3 4))) ; 10