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              **Racing Rules of Sailing Summary**
             Published 2023-06-17; Updated 2025-01-18

![The camaraderie and exciting competition of racing, here in
a Laser (ILCA) single-handed dinghy racing.](laser-teaser.jpg width=550 attriburl="https://www.laserinternational.org/" attrib="ILCA")

This article introduces the racing rules of sailing 2025-2028 (RRS) for sailors comfortable with at least novice boathandling and the basics of racing and ready to learn more about the rules.

As described in the Race Types section, there are many kinds of sailboat races. They build from the same rule set, so learning these rules prepares you both to participate in local day races and to follow (and maybe some day participate in!) sailboat racing at any level, including Olympic and around the world races.

The numbers in parentheses throughout this article are the rule numbers from RRS. In addition to this article, you should read the full rule set and have reasonable familiarity with Part 2 and especially rule 18. The specific definitions, rules, and subrules add significant detail and describe subtleties not encapsulated here.

The full rules are also admittedly complex and subject to interpretation, at the level of legislation or academic literature. So, this article will help prepare you for proper racing with knowledge of the rules without burdening you with full details in the summary. If you learn everything here, then you will have understanding at about the level of most racers with a year or two of college or club racing experience.

Elements of Racing

Sailboat day racing combines multiple elements:

• Condition of the boat, through pre-race maintenance and rigging modifications within class rules.
• Strategy with regard to the overall path sailed, weather, and current.
• Tactics for managing interactions with nearby competitors by exploiting the rules.
• Crew teamwork and communication.
• Physical ability and technical skill in trimming and boat handling.

Note that physical ability / technical skill is only one of the elements! While sailing ability is of course important, in many cases it is the least significant factor in racing success. When every crew in a race has a reasonable degree of boat handling, the other factors can dominate.

A good strategist in a well-maintained boat might handily best a crew with more athletic prowess. As in any sport, a crew working effectively as a team is very likely to beat those who are squabbling or have not practiced together. The best execution of a terrible chosen path will still lead to a loss over the boat that sails the windier part of the course.

Right of Way

International navigation rules (COLREGS) for when two boats meet specify a give-way vessel and a stand-on vessel. Boats that are racing are required to follow those rules with regard to non-racing vessels, but are governed by modified rules with respect to each other.

When two boats meet in a race, one is the give-way vessel and the other is the right-of-way vessel. Unlike in normal navigation, the boat with the right of way is not required to stand on and maintain its current course and speed. In fact, it may and often will move in a manner that forces the give-way vessel to make further course changes to avoid a collision.

The give-way vessel is required to keep clear and avoid collisions. However, the distance is generally much less than in normal navigation, where a give-way vessel must make obvious course corrections and usually provides several boat lengths of space to the the stand-on vessel. It varies with the size and speed of the boats and the sea conditions. It is not unusual for ILCA racers to be only tens of centimeters apart, or keelboats to pass within a few meters of each other.

Gaining right of way is not instantaneous. When a boat gains right of way through its own actions, it is required to keep clear of the boat it gained rights on until that boat has room to maneuver (13, 15, 16).

For example, consider the case of a port tack boat that approaches a starboard tack boat and then tacks below it. The boat that just tacked has right of way because it is to leeward and both are on starboard tack. However, it must give the other boat some time to adjust course to avoid a collision if their paths intersect (13, 16). This situation often arises at the start of a race.

The right of way rules are modified in certain situations:

• Detailed rules for the zone around the mark
• Boat performing penalty turns or re-starting must stay clear
• Room to clear obstructions

Definitions

The start line is between the windward edge of the port end pin (usually a buoy) and the staff flying the orange flag at the starboard end (usually on an anchored committee boat). The start line is usually 1 to 2 times the total length of all boats in the fleet. A longer line is easier for beginners and a shorter line is more competitive for experienced racers. The finish line is often the same line as the start line.

The start and finish are typically both upwind points of sail and the lines are nearly perpendicular to the wind, although downwind finishes are not uncommon. Downwind and reaching starts are rare.

A boat starts after the start signal when it approaches the line from opposite the course side, and any part of the hull touches the start line.

A boat's proper course is the course it would choose to sail to finish as fast as possible in the absence of other boats. This only exists after the boat has started and before it has finished. Proper course matters for rules 17 and 18.4, which essentially use it to ensure that a boat can't sail wide of a mark or overtake and then pinch up and then use right of way rules to force someone else to also do so.

A give-way boat that must keep clear of another must allow that other boat sufficient room to sail its current course without risk of collision, as well suffient room to make adjustments or change course in either direction without immediately provoking a collision. Changing course includes easing a sail, heeling, hiking, and mounting a trapeze.

A mark is an object that the boat is required to pass on a specific side, starboard or port. Boats take a penalty if they touch a mark. Most of the marks are usually buoys, except for the committee boat (which is not a "boat" or an "obstruction" for the purpose of the race rules). Except for the committee boat, these are usually passed with the mark on the port side. The anchor line is not considered part of the mark. A boat is fetching a mark when it is in position to pass it to windward on the correct side.

The zone around a mark is a region of the water within three hull lengths of the mark, where the length of the boat closest to the mark is used. There are special right of way rules within the zone. A boat is in the zone when any part of its hull is in the zone.

A boat is inside of another one in the zone if it lies between the mark and the other boat.

A gate is defined by two marks, where the boats must must individually choose which one to round. They do so based on their position, tactical considerations relative to the fleet, and the prevailing conditions. Not all courses have gates. When employed, gates are typically used for the leeward (most downwind) mark.

A leg of a course is the section between marks that a boat must pass in sequence. A leg is often not sailed straight as boats must tack or gybe to hit their fastest point of sail. The definition of leg is particular relevant for two rules. Rule 28.1 says that a boat can sail on either side of marks that are to not define the leg it is currently on. Rule 18's zone restrictions do not apply to a boat that has rounded a mark and left it clear astern.

An obstruction is anything that must be navigated around or on a specific side to avoid a collision, except for a mark surrounded by navigable water on all sides. Obstructions create exceptions to the other right of way rules. Obstructions include docks, bridge pilings, sandbars, anchored boats, and capsized boats. A boat underway that one is required by navigation or racing rules to keep clear of is an obstruction. Note that the committee boat is not an obstruction as long as a boat can pass on either side of it.

Racers must hail (shout at) each other three circumstances, and generally communicate more between boats than in recreational sailing. The hails are for several purposes. They can optionally notify others of intentions and impressions to help avoid collisions in tight quarters, such as "I'm about to gybe", "head up, I'm leeward!", "there is no overlap", and "we are now in the zone". The three cases where an exact hail is required are "room to tack" (20.1), "you tack" (20.2c), and "protest" (61.1).

A boat is clear ahead if an imaginary line through and parallel to its transom does not go through the other boat or pass behind its transom. If a boat is clear ahead, then the other boat is clear astern.

Two boats are overlapped when neither is clear ahead or when they are overlapped with some set of boats between them, creating a chain of overlaps. Beware that boats sailing downwind on wide angles to each other may be overlapped even if they are quite far apart horizontally. An overlap can be established or broken by turning so that the imaginary line sweeps to a different area and no longer touches the other boat. Also beware that two boats that are sailing head on towards each other are considered "overlapped" as far as the rules are concerned, even though they don't overlap each other in any normal sense of the term.

A boat finishes when it approaches the finish line from the course side and any part of the hull touches the finish line. It is not necessary to cross the finish line. It is important to clear away from the course, as a boat that continues to sail the course is then retroactively not finished.

Rules

The following is a simplification of the essential rules that govern commonly arising race situations.

Safety

• Give all help to a person or vessel in danger (1.1).

• Avoid capsized/recovering, aground, and rescuing boats (22).

Right of Way

• Different tacks:

  • Port tack keep clear of starboard (10).

• Same tack:

  • Windward keep clear of leeward when overlapped (11).
  • Astern keep clear of ahead when not overlapped (12).

• While tacking:

  • Keep clear of all other boats until close hauled (13).

• Avoid collisions (14).

• When backing a sail (21.3) or taking a penalty (21.2), keep clear of boats that are not.

• When not racing, keep clear of boats that are (23). For example, after finishing get out of the way of the other boats and before the start, keep clear of other races.

!!! Warning "Starboard!" Beware of the case depicted in Figure [Rule11]c, where boats on different legs meet on the same tack. Because of the way "overlap" is defined in RRS, these boats are considered overlapped and rule 11 applies: leeward has right of way.

This can be dangerous when the blue boat sailing downwind is a novice racer. They may be confused about which tack the other boat is on, and incorrectly think "I know that I'm on starboard, so I must have right of way over that other boat." Yet in this case, both boats are on starboard, so rule 10 is irrelevant. Rule 11 gives the orange leeward boat the right of way.

If that blue boat's skipper starts bellowing "starboard!", that is a sign that they are confused. In practice, the orange boat might helpfully reply "leeward", but the rules dictate only that if necessary to avoid a collision it must change course (14) and protest (61.1); there is no requirement to verbally respond.

Beware of the really tricky case not shown where the blue boat is approaching the orange one head on and sailing by the lee. In that situation, both boats are on starboard and both are leeward of each other. Nobody has right of way in that situation and both must keep clear.

Mark-Room

• Mark-room applies to boats approaching a mark, when at least one of them is in the zone, and when they are either upwind on the same tack or both sailing downwind (18.1). It does not apply to starting marks.

• Overlap (18.2):

  • If two boats are overlapped when the first one reaches the zone, then the outside (relative to the mark) boat must give the inside boat room to round the mark even if the overlap is later broken.
  • A boat must give room to another boat that reached the zone clear ahead of it, regardless of which is inside. This changed in 2025.

• Tacking (18.3): A boat that tacks from port to starboard inside of the zone of a (typical) mark to be left to port can't force a windward boat above close hauled. The boat that tacked must give room to all inside overlapped boats. Tacking also causes a boat to lose its rights based on overlap (18.2.d).

• Mark room is not right of way. A boat giving mark room only needs to give enough room for the other boat to round the mark (including for its boom to tack or gybe). It does not need to allow the other boat to sail anywhere it wants, and the other right of way rules are still in effect.

!!! Warning Downwind Mark-Room Note that when sailing downwind, a starboard-tack boat still has to give room to an inside port-tack boat, and the leeward of two port-tack boats has to give room to the windward boat if it is inside. The navigation rules you've used in all other situations when sailing suddenly change when you hit the zone going downwind!

![Figure [Windward]: Windward example. Orange
is entitled to mark-room.](rules/18-windward.svg width=340px) Because marks are typically taken to port, mark-room most commonly applies at a windward mark only to two boats on port tack. However, upwind gates and the finish line, and the rare explicit starboard mark can create additional upwind cases.

In Figure [Windward], orange and blue are approaching the windward mark on the same tack, upwind (port). When blue enters the zone, orange is overlapped. Therefore, orange is entitled to mark-room. Blue must keep clear even though orange is to windward. The hails shown are not required.

In Figure [Leeward], blue, orange, and purple are approaching the leeward mark. When orange enters the zone, it is overlapped with each. Purple is entitled to mark-room from blue and orange; they must keep clear even though purple is on port and windward. Orange is entitled to mark-room from blue, who must keep clear even though orange is on port and blue is on starboard.

Mark-room does not apply to the marks on the start line during the final approach to start. ![Figure [Leeward]: Leeward example. Purple is
entitled to mark-room from orange
and blue. Orange is entitled to
mark-room from blue.](rules/18-leeward.svg width=310px) It does apply to the committee boat as an obstruction when not on final approach, and to both marks at the finish line.

Study the official text of rule 18 carefully. It is complicated and is the rule that most commonly affects critical situations.

Technically, 18 does not "override" other rules. All rules are always in force. By giving mark-room, a boat may necessarily break other rules such as leeward over windward, but it is then immediately exonerated under rule 43b for doing so and takes no penalty.

Proper Course

• A leeward boat that was overtaking can't sail above its own proper course to slow down a give-way boat to windward on the same tack (17). That includes not tacking late at a mark to force a competitor to sail wide. Note that the proper course of the windward boat is not relevant.

• An inside and overlapped boat with mark room must gybe promptly after a (non-gate) gybe mark so as to not force give-way competitors to sail wide (18.4).

!!! Note When a leeward boat may luff The intent of rule 17 is to prevent an overtaking boat from simply attacking another boat on an upwind leg rather than trying to sail fast by itself. It generally does not apply in cases that would protect a faster boat from being pinched. Specifically, the leeward boat can head up as far as it wishes on an upwind leg, all of the way to luffing (but not tacking) if any of the following apply:

- The leeward boat was _overtaken_ by the windward boat and is thus defending
- The leeward boat established its attacking overlap more than two boat lengths away (diagonally)
- Both boats are on starboard, and tacking to port would be the fastest and thus proper course for the leeward boat ([ruling case 46](https://sailzing.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Case-46.pdf), established under previous rules)
- Pinching or luffing would be the fastest course right at an upwind finish line -- 
  the rule refers to "proper course", not "close hauled"

Some examples are shown #5 and #7 and [SailZing's 2021 rules tutorial](https://sailzing.com/racing-rules-of-sailing-2021-2024-rule-17-same-tack-proper-course/).

Obstructions

• Give other boats room to clear an obstruction following the same rules as you do for rounding a mark (19).

• If you need to tack to avoid both an obstruction and a boat on the same tack, you must hail the other boat to be entitled to room. The other boat then either tacks itself or says "you tack" and gives room (20). You also must do so with enought time for them to respond, including them having to potentially hail other boats in their way.

• In a three-boat scenario where port-tack boat PW must stay clear of both port-tack boat PL to leeward and starboard-tack boat S, boat S counts as an obstruction and PW can request room from PL, as if at a mark. Because PL will also have to keep clear of S, in practice both port tack boats should tack or gybe in this situation.

Recall that the committee boat is a mark, and thus cannot be an obstruction.

Start Sequence

Standard

The race starting sequence (26) is as follows:

• Attention: Many short blasts
• 5 Minute "Warning": First flag raised and one sound signal. The flag is authoritative and the sound is a courtesy.
• 4 Minute "Preparatory": Second flag raised and one sound signal.
• 1 Minute "One Minute": Second flag lowered and one long sound signal.
• 0 Minute "Start": First flag lowered and one sound signal.

This is the only start sequence in RRS. An individual race committee may override it with a custom sequence.

!!! Note The orange flag The race committee also flies an orange flag from the boat on the start line and a blue flag from the boat on the finish line (5.2). Do not confuse this with the start sequence flags. There will be three total flags raised at two minutes before the start.

Most committees will use an optional Attention rapid sequence of sound signals before the five minute Warning, to get everyone's attention that the sequence is about to begin.

At least five minutes before the five minute warning, the orange flag will be raised with a sound signal. In practice, the committee often raises this flag as soon as they anchor and forgets the sound signal. The pole from which the orange flag is the flying is end of the start line (and the blue flag is the end of the finish line), not the committee boat that flies it. The other end of the line is the course side of the pin mark.

3-Minute Dinghy

The most common override of rule 26 is the US Sailing Appendix U Audible-Signal Racing System three-minute start for dinghy races. This sequence is three minutes, has no flags, and any sound signal can also be replaced by a hail:

• Attention: Many short blasts
• 3 Minute "Warning": Three long sound signals.
• 2 Minute "Preparatory: Two long sound signals.
• 1 Minute, 30 seconds: One long and three short sound signals.
• 1 Minute: One long sound signal.
• 30 Second: Three short sound signals.
• 20 Second: Two short sound signals.
• 10 Second: One short sound signal.
• 5 through -1 Second: One short sound signal each.
• 0 Minute: One long signal.

Propulsion

• Use only the wind, waves, and current to change and maintain speed (42.1).

• Specifically, do not (42.2):

  • Pump the sail (42.2a).
  • Rock the boat (42.2b).
  • Jump forward, ooching (42.2c).
  • Scull with the rudder (42.2d).
  • Repeatedly tack or gybe for no tactical reason (42.2e).

• Except (42.3):

  • Rolling to steer (42.3a).
  • Rolling to preserve speed (but not accelerate further) during a tack or gybe (42.3b).
  • Pumping the sail once per wave or gust to initiate planing (42.3c).
  • Sculling when in irons (42.3d).
  • Pumping to fix an inverted batten, as long as it does not clearly propel the boat (42.3e).
  • Swinging the rudder to slow down (42.3f).

• Anchoring to maintain position is allowed, so long as the boat does not gain ground by doing so (i.e., no kedging).

!!! Note The Right to Swim I find it very charming that swimming is explicitly permitted during a race (48.2). You have to get back in the boat before it sails for the next mark, of course. It is probably stated to avoid penalizing capsized dinghy sailors, but I also like to swim on hot days while waiting for the race start.

Rule Violations

Protests

• All boats share the responsibility for enforcing the rules, including against themselves.

  • If you violated a rule, then you are expected to take the penalty under the "Basic Principle: Sportsmanship and the Rules" in RRS regardless of whether someone observed you or protested.

  • The committee does not act as an umpire in sailing. It may protest a competitor, but almost all protests from from the sailors themselves.

  • Competitors cannot protest the race committee.

• To protest, you must hail with the exact word "protest." If on a boat 6m / 19.7ft or longer, then also display a red flag (61.1). The protest is invalid if both actions are not done.

  • Saying why you are protesting is helpful, especially in more casual club racing, but is not required.

  • You may protest violation of any rules, including class rules. For a right of way violation, you may only protest if you were involved in it (60.1a), or observed it (60.1b; this is rarely invoked)

!!! Note If You Are Unsure In ambiguous cases where I'm not sure if I was in the wrong in during a friendly race, I just ask the other boat "did I foul you?" This might arise for a narrow starboard-port passing upwind, or when tacking and gaining right of way over them with little room for them to avoid.

In those cases it can be difficult to know if the other boat took evasive action to avoid a collision, or was exploiting some separate wind or wave issue and could have safely maintained their course despite my actions.

Explicitly asking is not required but is sportspersonlike and polite. They may feel that I violated the rules but are constrained by social ettiquite to not aggressively protest me, and I honestly need their information to know if I've broken a rule and should take the penalty.

Penalties

• Starting too early: turn and sail until the hull is completely behind the starting line, and then start again, keeping clear of all other boats that started correctly (30). This is the default. However, if the black, U, or I flags are flying there are severe penalties for being on the course side of the line before the start.

• Right of way violations: 720 degrees turn (two complete turns, two tacks, two gybes; Part 2). In the US, the sailing instructions may declare rule V1 in effect, which reduces this to a one turn penalty unless it occurs within the zone of a mark

• Touching a mark on the current leg with any equipment: 360 degrees turn of one tack and one gybe (31).

  • Marks only affect the current leg being sailed (28) and can otherwise be ignored, including which side they are passed on and hitting them.

• "If the boat caused injury or serious damage or, despite taking a penalty, gained a significant advantage in the race or series by her breach her penalty shall be to retire." (44.1)

When you have been protested by another boat, there is no requirement to respond verbally to the other boat and the rules provide no recourse to debate the situation on the water. Instead, you have exactly three options:

• Take the penalty turns immediately. This exonerates you.
• Retire from the race.
• Wait for a hearing on shore, and risk disqualification if the committee rules against you.

A boat may also request redress from the committee after the race for a right of way violation that impacted it.

There are some cases where a boat is forced to violate one rule in order to observe another one. Mark room is one of these cases. In these, the rule was broken, but another rule explicitly exonerates them so there is no penalty.

A boat that has completed the required penalty is exonerated, and cannot be penalized further for the incident in a heading. However, although the wronged boat could apply for redress from the committee.

Hearings

In friendly club races, it is not uncommon to discuss the situation briefly at the time or on shore afterwards. In that case, everyone is seeking to learn and understand the rules--and remain on good terms with their clubmates.

In such a club race, being a stickler for the rules and penalties against someone who is learning is not good sportspersonship. Doing so with someone who is more experienced but prickly might also lead to decades of bad blood at the yacht club. So, most expert sailors would focus on being gracious and helpful in the face of a rules violation, or simply avoid sailing close to folks they expect might be problematic.

Part 5 of RRS is a significant amount of detail about protest hearings. On-shore hearings are rarely applied at club races for dinghies with low stakes. Hearings arise for some larger club keelboat regattas, and the most hardcore versions are essential for regional, national, and world events events in boats of all types.

A boat may request redress from the committee in the form of a time adjustment. For example, if a competitor violated its right of way in such a significant manner that it was significantly slowed against the rest of the fleet and this changed its final place. Or, if the boat diverted for safety reasons to support a rescue. The committee may also call a redress hearing on its own without a request. As with protest hearings, redress hearings are called proportionally to the stakes. I've never seen one for a small boat club race, but have seen them for 25' and larger keelboat races and the litiginous part of sailing remains common at high stakes national races.

Courses

The course is chosen by the race committee and communicated ahead of time to the skippers at the meeting. It may also be changed on the water or during the race if the conditions change.

Example

The diagram below shows a typical course. The start/finish line is perpendicular to the wind. It is denoted by the committee boat on the starboard end and the pin buoy on the port end. All marks except for the committee boat must be taken on the port side of the boat.


The blue boat chooses to start on starboard tack, so that it has right of way over any port tack boats. It sails close hauled on the first upwind leg (aka beating leg, beat), and rounds the windward mark on starboard tack. It then falls off to a broad reach after it rounds the mark and heads for the offset mark (aka gybe mark). At the offset mark, it gybes onto a port tack broad reach and sails for the leeward mark. At the leeward mark, it rounds up hard to close hauled and sails for the finish line. It tacks and then sails to the finish. After finishing, the boat will keep clear of others still sailing the course and wait for the next race to begin.

The blue boat could have chosen to start on port tack, and to start or finish at different points along the line. It could have tacked at different locations and more times on the two upwind legs. It does not have much freedom on the broad reaches, where it must sail its proper course that is straight towards the marks. At each mark, it must round promptly after passing and not overextend its turns.

Common

Appendix S of RRS defines some standard courses as examples of racing instructions. The way that they are depicted in the RRS appendix is confusing. They are not shown as overhead maps but instead as indications of what the boat will experience at each point. Specifically, the start and finish line are not in the actual locations relative to the other marks. They are instead indications of upwind vs. downwind finish and shown separately from the course to be sailed in between.

Below I show more intuitive top view maps of common courses. In each of the following diagrams, the black line depicts the direction of travel but not the exact path of boats. The wind is coming from the top in each diagram.

   ![Windward Leeward,
Twice Around](wl2.svg height=200) ![Windward Leeward,
Downwind Finish](wld.svg height=200) ![Variant Windward Leeward,
Downwind Finish](wld-alt.svg height=200)  

The Olympic Trapezoid shown here has a gate. At the green marks, boats may choose either the port or starboard side. If taking the starboard side mark, a boat sails the gray stroked third leg. If it takes the port side mark, it sails the black stroked third leg.

A club may have a specific set of named courses with abbreviations that it uses as variations on these.

Windward Leeward is sometimes referred to casually as a sausage, and Triangle Windward Leeward could also be called Triangle Sausage.

Actual Olympic sailing uses many courses including variations on the Olympic Triangle and Olympic Trapezoid, and in club races, there are several variations on what is called an Olympic course.

Race Types

![2022 Sydney-Hobart Race start.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/77th_Rolex_Sydney_Hobart_Yacht_Race_at_16_minutes_in.jpg attrib="CC BY-SA 4.0 Dicklyon")

Races are categorized as:

• One-design races in production boats, where all boats are identical.
• Mixed-class production boat club races, where Portsmouth (dinghy) and PHRF (keelboat) handicaps are applied to well known boat classes for fairness by adjusting the time sailed. Sometimes the time is preadjusted based on the length of the course and start times are staggered, so that the first boat to finish will win.
• Mixed-design offshore yacht races using ORC, ORR, and IRC measurement based handicaps.
• Design-rule races in custom boats, where an equation for boat metrics and set of training rules gives creative design freedom while governing overall fairness.

The diversity of sailboat races includes:

• College varsity dinghies, typically 20 minute races with ten to forty single- or double-handed boats organized in weekend regattas
• One design national, regional, and world regattas (e.g., ILCA, 420, RS200, 49er)
• Offshore and cross-ocean races, which are typically multi-day and on large keelboats or catamarans. Fatigue is a major factor. The largest of these include the Fastnet, Sydney-Hobart, Newport-Bermuda, Transpac, Route du Rhum, Transat and Mini Transat, and The Ocean (aka Volvo, Whitbread).
• America's Cup, which today is a set of match races between design-rule boats fielded by nations
• SailGP, similar to formula one car racing for foiling catamarans
• Around the world races (e.g., Clipper, Golden Globe, Vendée Globe, Barcelona), where weather forecasting, navigation, maintenance underway, and endurance are core parts of the challenge and the race may take months to years to complete!

Because the absolute time does not matter in most scoring, sailing fast is not as important as sailing faster than the competition. This means that a large part of strategy in a sailboat race is creating situations in which the rules favor one's own boat and prevent competitors from gaining ground or passing.

Some scoring variations beyond first-across-the-line can create more complex strategic goals:

• Handicap (PHRF, Portsmouth) races are won based on adjusted time (AT) instead of course time (CT) finishes. A fast boat that will have to "give time" needs to avoid battling individual other fast competitors. Instead, it must focus on minimizing its total time relative to slower boats that it has no way of directly fighting.
• Pursuit races are a variation on handicap races. Each boat is assigned a start time based on its handicap. The first across the line wins, because the time adjustment was preapplied. This essentially shifts the end time adjustment to the start time. Ideally this would increase the amount of interaction and excitement at the end of the race, while reducing interaction at the congested start.
• Match races have only two boats facing off head-to-head.
• Team racing is scored by the finish positions of a set of boats that sail together as a team. Instead of individually sailing to finish first, they collaborate to slow competitors and ensure that their fleet's set of finish positions is collectively higher than their opponents'.
• A regatta is a set of races in which the winner has the best total across the sum of their individual race scores. This can change a boat's best strategy in an individual race to not be finishing first. Instead, preventing a close-ranked competitor from placing well may lead to the best total result.
• A series is like a regatta, but takes place over a long period of time, often an entire season. Because of the long time period, not all boats may be able to participate in all races. A common rule is that each boat scores one point for every other boat that it beats in a race. A boat's series score is the sum of their race scores. So, participating and performing well in the individual races in which many others participate is more important than attending every race.

A rabbit start can be used when a race committee and committee boat are not available.

Improving

I find that racing is a terrific way to improve one's skills at sailing. Once you're focused on a goal and have less time to overthink individual maneuvers, the skills start to become internalized and intuitive.

Racing in conditions or with competitors who are far outside of your abilities is not helpful. However, sailing at the edge of your comfort zone and with some competitors who are just a bit better is a great way to drive yourself to improve.

Outside of a race itself, some ways that you can improve your racing skills are:

• Study the rules. There are plenty of videos and articles analyzing situations both common and obscure.
• Sail in varying conditions as if compelled by a race, and not just in mild wind and on sunny days. Take on a little more or less wind than is ideal for you. Sail on cold or very hot days. Sail in the rain (but not thunderstorms).
• Rig and dress as if you were racing when sailing for practice. Have your watch, your helmet, your big sail, etc. as if it were a race. This will help you become accustomed to them and resolve any gear issues outside of competition.
• Practice all points of sail. Sail upwind as close to the wind as you can, sail reaches and deep reaches, make gybes to close hauled as if rounding a mark, etc.
• Practice race maneuvers as if doing drills--you are a self-coached athlete! Perform repeated back-to-back tacks for 15 minutes straight. Practice repeated gybes. Practice your penalty 720 degree and 360 degree turns. Practice bearing off at the start to accelerate and then heading up hard.
• If you're in a dinghy, practice backwinding to pause at the start and practice capsize recovery. You are far more likely to capsize during a race than day sailing as you push your limits. When you capsize in a race, a fast recovery can preserve your place.

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