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v-types.html
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<a class="nav-entry-link" href="appendix-i-keywords.html">Appendix I: Keywords</a>
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<a class="nav-entry-link" href="appendix-ii-operators.html">Appendix II: Operators</a>
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<main class="v-doc">
<h1 class="main">V Types</h1>
<h2 id="primitive-types">Primitive types <a href="v-types.html#primitive-types" class="header-anchor" aria-hidden="true">#</a></h2>
<div class="language-v">bool
string
i8 i16 int i64 i128 (soon)
u8 u16 u32 u64 u128 (soon)
rune // represents a Unicode code point
f32 f64
isize, usize // platform-dependent, the size is how many bytes it takes to reference any location in memory
voidptr // this one is mostly used for [C interoperability](#v-and-c)
any // similar to C's void* and Go's interface{}
</div>
<blockquote class="tip">
<p>[!NOTE]
Unlike C and Go, <code>int</code> is always a 32 bit integer.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>There is an exception to the rule that all operators
in V must have values of the same type on both sides. A small primitive type
on one side can be automatically promoted if it fits
completely into the data range of the type on the other side.
These are the allowed possibilities:</p>
<div class="language-v"> i8 → i16 → int → i64
↘ ↘
f32 → f64
↗ ↗
u8 → u16 → u32 → u64 ⬎
↘ ↘ ↘ ptr
i8 → i16 → int → i64 ⬏
</div>
<p>An <code>int</code> value for example can be automatically promoted to <code>f64</code>
or <code>i64</code> but not to <code>u32</code>. (<code>u32</code> would mean loss of the sign for
negative values).
Promotion from <code>int</code> to <code>f32</code>, however, is currently done automatically
(but can lead to precision loss for large values).</p>
<p>Literals like <code>123</code> or <code>4.56</code> are treated in a special way. They do
not lead to type promotions, however they default to <code>int</code> and <code>f64</code>
respectively, when their type has to be decided:</p>
<div class="language-v">u := u16(12)
v := 13 + u // v is of type `u16` - no promotion
x := f32(45.6)
y := x + 3.14 // y is of type `f32` - no promotion
a := 75 // a is of type `int` - default for int literal
b := 14.7 // b is of type `f64` - default for float literal
c := u + a // c is of type `int` - automatic promotion of `u`'s value
d := b + x // d is of type `f64` - automatic promotion of `x`'s value
</div>
<h2 id="strings">Strings <a href="v-types.html#strings" class="header-anchor" aria-hidden="true">#</a></h2>
<p>In V, strings are encoded in UTF-8, and are immutable (read-only) by default:</p>
<div class="language-v">s := 'hello 🌎' // the `world` emoji takes 4 bytes, and string length is reported in bytes
assert s.len == 10
arr := s.bytes() // convert `string` to `[]u8`
assert arr.len == 10
s2 := arr.bytestr() // convert `[]u8` to `string`
assert s2 == s
name := 'Bob'
assert name.len == 3
// indexing gives a byte, u8(66) == `B`
assert name[0] == u8(66)
// slicing gives a string 'ob'
assert name[1..3] == 'ob'
// escape codes
// escape special characters like in C
windows_newline := '\r\n'
assert windows_newline.len == 2
// arbitrary bytes can be directly specified using `\x##` notation where `#` is
// a hex digit
aardvark_str := '\x61ardvark'
assert aardvark_str == 'aardvark'
assert '\xc0'[0] == u8(0xc0)
// or using octal escape `\###` notation where `#` is an octal digit
aardvark_str2 := '\141ardvark'
assert aardvark_str2 == 'aardvark'
// Unicode can be specified directly as `\u####` where # is a hex digit
// and will be converted internally to its UTF-8 representation
star_str := '\u2605' // ★
assert star_str == '★'
// UTF-8 can be specified this way too, as individual bytes.
assert star_str == '\xe2\x98\x85'
</div>
<p>Since strings are immutable, you cannot directly change characters in a string:</p>
<div class="language-v">mut s := 'hello 🌎'
s[0] = `H` // not allowed
</div>
<blockquote class="tip">
<p>error: cannot assign to <code>s[i]</code> since V strings are immutable</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Note that indexing a string normally will produce a <code>u8</code> (byte), not a <code>rune</code> nor another <code>string</code>.
Indexes correspond to <em>bytes</em> in the string, not Unicode code points.
If you want to convert the <code>u8</code> to a <code>string</code>, use the <code>.ascii_str()</code> method on the <code>u8</code>:</p>
<div class="language-v">country := 'Netherlands'
println(country[0]) // Output: 78
println(country[0].ascii_str()) // Output: N
</div>
<p>However, you can easily get the runes for a string with the <code>runes()</code> method, which will return an
array of the UTF-8 characters from the string. You can then index this array. Just be aware that
there may be fewer indexes available on the <code>rune</code> array than on the bytes in the string, if there
<em>are</em> any non-ASCII characters.</p>
<div class="language-v">mut s := 'hello 🌎'
// there are 10 bytes in the string (as shown earlier), but only 7 runes, since the `world` emoji
// only counts as one `rune` (one Unicode character)
assert s.runes().len == 7
println(s.runes()[6])
</div>
<p>If you want the code point from a specific <code>string</code> index or other more advanced UTF-8 processing
and conversions, refer to the
<a href="https://modules.vlang.io/encoding.utf8.html">vlib/encoding/utf8</a> module.</p>
<p>Both single and double quotes can be used to denote strings. For consistency, <code>vfmt</code> converts double
quotes to single quotes unless the string contains a single quote character.</p>
<p>Prepend <code>r</code> for raw strings. Escapes are not handled, so you will get exacly what you type:</p>
<div class="language-v">s := r'hello\nworld' // the `\n` will be preserved as two characters
println(s) // "hello\nworld"
</div>
<p>Strings can be easily converted to integers:</p>
<div class="language-v">s := '42'
n := s.int() // 42
// all int literals are supported
assert '0xc3'.int() == 195
assert '0o10'.int() == 8
assert '0b1111_0000_1010'.int() == 3850
assert '-0b1111_0000_1010'.int() == -3850
</div>
<p>For more advanced <code>string</code> processing and conversions, refer to the
<a href="https://modules.vlang.io/strconv.html">vlib/strconv</a> module.</p>
<h3 id="string-interpolation">String interpolation <a href="v-types.html#string-interpolation" class="header-anchor" aria-hidden="true">#</a></h3>
<p>Basic interpolation syntax is pretty simple - use <code>${</code> before a variable name and <code>}</code> after. The
variable will be converted to a string and embedded into the literal:</p>
<div class="language-v">name := 'Bob'
println('Hello, ${name}!') // Hello, Bob!
</div>
<p>It also works with fields: <code>'age = ${user.age}'</code>. You may also use more complex expressions:
<code>'can register = ${user.age > 13}'</code>.</p>
<p>Format specifiers similar to those in C's <code>printf()</code> are also supported. <code>f</code>, <code>g</code>, <code>x</code>, <code>o</code>, <code>b</code>,
etc. are optional and specify the output format. The compiler takes care of the storage size, so
there is no <code>hd</code> or <code>llu</code>.</p>
<p>To use a format specifier, follow this pattern:</p>
<p><code>${varname:[flags][width][.precision][type]}</code></p>
<ul>
<li><p>flags: may be zero or more of the following: <code>-</code> to left-align output within the field, <code>0</code> to use
<code>0</code> as the padding character instead of the default <code>space</code> character.</p>
<blockquote class="tip">
<p><strong>Note</strong></p>
<p>V does not currently support the use of <code>'</code> or <code>#</code> as format flags, and V supports but
doesn't need <code>+</code> to right-align since that's the default.</p>
</blockquote>
</li>
<li><p>width: may be an integer value describing the minimum width of total field to output.</p>
</li>
<li><p>precision: an integer value preceded by a <code>.</code> will guarantee that many digits after the decimal
point without any insignificant trailing zeros. If displaying insignificant zero's is desired,
append a <code>f</code> specifier to the precision value (see examples below). Applies only to float
variables and is ignored for integer variables.</p>
</li>
<li><p>type: <code>f</code> and <code>F</code> specify the input is a float and should be rendered as such, <code>e</code> and <code>E</code> specify
the input is a float and should be rendered as an exponent (partially broken), <code>g</code> and <code>G</code> specify
the input is a float--the renderer will use floating point notation for small values and exponent
notation for large values, <code>d</code> specifies the input is an integer and should be rendered in base-10
digits, <code>x</code> and <code>X</code> require an integer and will render it as hexadecimal digits, <code>o</code> requires an
integer and will render it as octal digits, <code>b</code> requires an integer and will render it as binary