grammar.md

Present and Present continuous

• get vs become Get/become + adjective = growth or development of some sort As I get older I get more optimistic. = As I become older I become more optimistic. Become + noun = development or change She became a nun. != She got a nun. Get + noun/pronoun = ‘obtain’, ‘fetch’, ‘receive’ or ‘acquire’. I got a call from Betty

• When we say "I promise to do". We don't say "I'm promising to do" however we are in the middle of the process of promising. apologise, suggest, advise, insist, agree, refuse.

• I always do and I'm always doing I always do (something) = I do it every time: I always travel on foot. I'm always doing (something) = I do it more often than normal, too much: I've lost my phone. I'm always losing my phone.

• Don't use with continuous: Like, want, need, prefer, know, realise, belong, fit, suppose, mean, understand, believe, remember, contain, consist, seem see, hear, smell, taste

Present perfect

• When we use the present perfect, there is a connection with now. The action in the past has a result now. A period of time from the past that continues until now. When we say that 'something has happened', this is usually new information. He has Lost his key = He lost it recently, and he still doesn't have it He has gone to Italy = he is there now or on his way there She has been to Italy = she has now come back He has been out = he went out but he's not out now It's the (nth) time something has happened. Not the (nth) time happens. Have you ever visited = Have you ever been to
• The main point is the result of activity.
• Yet = until now. It is probably more common in questions. Have you finished your sandwich yet? - Yes, I've already finished
• In question "Already" has essentially the same meaning as "yet" but might indicate some surprise. Have you already finished your sandwich? I just gave it to you and you have finished it so quickly.

Present perfect continuous

• We use it for an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped. There is a connection with now. Paul is very tired. He's been working very hard. (= he's tired now)
• The activity might not be stopped but when we mean the part of it until now. It has been raining for two hours (it might still raining)
• For actions repeated over a period of time. She's been playing since she was eight

Present perfect vs Present perfect continuous

• Perfect Continuous is about the activity. Perfect is about the result of activity.
• Perfect Continuous + How long. Perfect + how much, how many.
• Simplification of 'been' it's been a long time since/for == it's a long time since/for

Present perfect vs Present simple

• Use Past Simple for things that are not recent or new. Use Present Perfect for the contrary.
• During the conversation the new information is not new anymore, so you are ought to use past simple. Ow! I've burnt myself. How did you do that? (not have you done) I picked up (not have picked up) a hot dish.
• What do you think of my English? Do you think it has improved?
• My grandfather died before I was born. I never met him. I don't know Jane. I've never met her.

Past perfect

• The same as Present Perfect but instead of 'now' there is some point of time in the past. So, if smth happened before that point and we want to emphasize that we use Past Perfect. Kate wasn't at home when I phoned. vs. Kate had just got home when I phoned.

  Past perfect

• The same mechanism to change as in Present Perfect -> Past Perfect. It wasn't raining when we went out. But it had been raining, so the ground was wet.

Have vs Have got

• Have = Have got for possession, relationship, illness. In my opinion 'I've got' is appropriate when you possess smth since some time and want to emphasize that now. This equivalence does not work for the past. "I'd got" is not used. I have a headache = I've got a headache

Present tense for future

• I'm doing something (in future) = I have already decided and arranged to do it What are you doing on Saturday evening? (not What do you do)
• The present continuous is more natural when we talk about arrangements. Do not use will to talk about what you have arranged to do. What are you doing this evening? (not What will you do)
• You can also use the present continuous for an action just before you begin to do it. This happens especially with verbs of movement. I'm tired. I'm going to bed.
• We use the present simple when we talk about timetables, programmes etc. (for public transport, cinemas etc.) My train leaves at 11.30 What time does the film start this evening?
• You can use the present simple to talk about people if their plans are fixed like a timetable. I start my new job on Monday
• I'm going to do something = I've decided to do it (but perhaps not arranged to do it). Often the difference is very small and either form is possible.
• When we say that 'something is going to happen', the situation now makes this dear. He is going to walk into the wall. (cause he is going right into it and does not look forward)
• I was going to do something = I intended to do it, but didn't do it I thought it was going to rain, but it didn't

Will/shall

• We use I'll(= I will) when we've just decided to do something. When we say 'I'll do something', we announce our decision. Do not use will to talk about what you decided before (=going to...). I had enough, I'll go I'm for a minute, I won't stay long Will you please turn the music down?
• You can use won't to say that somebody refuses to do something I've tried to give her advice, but she won't listen
• Shall is used mostly in questions. Usually we ask for an opinion. Normally we use shall only with I and we. Shall I open the window? (=Do you want me to open the window?) Will you open the window? (=I want you to open the window)
• When we predict a future happening or situation, we use will/won't. Will he pass the exam? He will/won't. I don't think the exam will be very difficult.
• After I hope, we generally use the present (will is also possible) I hope Kate passes the exam.
• Sometimes we use will to talk about now Don't phone Ann now. She'll be busy.

Will vs going to

• We use both will and going to to predict future happenings and situations. I think the weather will be nice later = I think the weather is going to be nice later.
• When we say something is going to happen, we know this from the situation now. Look at those black clouds. it's going to rain. (not It will rain)

Will be doing vs. will have done

• I will be doing something (future continuous) = I will be in the middle of doing it. This time next week I'll be on holiday. I'll be lying on the beach or swimming in the sea.
• We also use will be-ing to talk about complete actions in the future. Will you be going away this summer? Our best player is injured and won't be playing in the game on Saturday.
• We use will have (done) to say that something will already be complete before a time in the future We're late. The film will already have started by the time we get to the cinema.

When I do/I've done, When and if

• We do not use will in the when-part of the sentence. This rule applies to: while, before, after, as soon as, until, till I'll phone you when I get home When you are in London again, come and see us (not When you will be) Wait here until (or till) I come back
• If we use the present perfect, one thing must be complete before the other Can I borrow that book when you've finished with it?
• Do not use the present perfect if the two things happen together When I phone Kate, I'll ask her about the party. (not When I've phoned}
• Both are possible quite often I'll come as soon as I finish = I'll come as soon as I've finished
• After if, we normally use the present simple (if I do, I if I see etc.) for the future I'll be angry if it happens again. (not if it will happen)
• We use when for things which are sure to happen I'm going out later. (for sure) When I go out, I'll get some bread.
• We use if (not when) for things that will possibly happen I might go out later. (it's possible) If I go out, I'll get some bread.

Can, could, be able to

• Sometimes could is the past of can. We use could especially with: see hear smell taste feel remember understand. We could see the lake yesterday.
• We also use could to say that somebody had the general ability or permission to do something My grandfather could speak five languages.
• If you want to say that somebody did something in a specific situation, use was/were able to or managed to (not could): The cat was fast, but I was able to catch it. (not could catch it)
• The negative couldn't is possible for could and was able to. The cat was fast, but I couldn't to catch it. My grandfather couldn't speak five languages.
• We also use could to talk about possible actions now or in the future (especially to make suggestions). Could is less sure than can in these cases. What shall we do tonight? We could go to the cinema.
• We also use could (not can) for actions that are not realistic. I'm so tired, I could sleep for a week I can stay with Sarah when I go to Paris. (realistic) I could stay with Sarah when I go to Paris. (possible, but less sure) I could stay with Sarah forever. (unrealistic)
• We also use could (not can) to say that something (a situation or a happening) is possible now or in the future. The meaning is similar to might or may. The story could be true, but I don't think it is.
• We use could have (done) to talk about the past. I was so tired, I could have slept for a week
• Something could have happened = it was possible but did not happen David was lucky. He could have hurt himself when he fell, but he's OK.
• We use couldn't to say that something would not be possible I couldn't live in a big city. I'd hate it. (= it wouldn't be possible for me)
  • For the past we use couldn't have (done) A year ago I couldn't have lived in a big city We had a really good holiday. It couldn't have been better.

Must and can't

• You can use must to say that you believe something is certain You've been travelling all day. You must be tired.
• You can use can't to say that you believe something is not possible You've just had lunch. You can't be hungry already.
• For the past we use must have (done) and can't have (done). We used to live very near the motorway. Did you? It must have been very noisy. Did you? It can't have been very noisy. It is abandoned. I've lost one of my gloves. You must have dropped it somewhere. Tom walked into a wall. He can't(couldn't also possible) have been looking where he was going.

May and might

• We use may or might to say that something is possible It may be true = It might be true. (= perhaps it is true)
• For the past we use may have (done) or might have (done) I wonder why Kate didn't answer her phone. She may have been asleep (perhaps she was asleep) I can't find my phone anywhere. You might have Left it at work. (perhaps you left it at work)
• Could is similar to may and might You could have left your phone at work. (its possible that you left it there)
• But couldn't (negative) is different from may not and might not Sarah couldn't have got my message. Otherwise she would have replied. Sarah hasn't replied. I suppose she might not have got it.
• We use may and might to talk about possible actions or happenings in the future Take an umbrella with you. It might rain later. (= perhaps it will rain) Amy may not go out tonight. She isn't feeling well. (=perhaps she will not go out)
• We use only might (not may) when the situation is not real If they paid me better, I might work harder.
• We might/may as well do something = We should do it because there is no better alternative. There is no reason not to do it. Buses are so expensive these days, you might as well get a taxi. What time are you going out? Well, I'm ready, so I might as well go now.

Must and Have to

• I have to do something = it is necessary to do it, I am obliged to do it I have to wear glasses They can't fix my computer, so I'll have to buy a new one (or I'm going to have to buy)
• In many cases must = have to. You can use must or have to to give your own opinion It's later than I thought. I must go. or I have to go.
• We use have to (not usually must) to say what someone is obliged to do. The speaker is not giving his/her own opinion I have to work from 8.30 to 5.30 every day. (a fact, not an opinion) She has had to wear glasses since she was very young
• Must is used in written rules and instructions Applications for the job must be received by 18 May
• You cannot use must to talk about the past We didn't have much time. We had to hurry
• You mustn't do something = it is necessary that you do not do it (so don't do it) You must keep this a secret. You mustn't tell anyone.
• You don't have to do something = you don't need to do it (but you can if you want) You don't have to tell Tom what happened. I can tell him myself.
• You can use have got to instead of have to. I've got to work tomorrow = I have to work tomorrow
• Needn't = don't need to We needn't hurry = We don't need to hurry
• Needn't have (done) They needn't have reserved a table (=They reserved a table, but this was not necessary)
• He didn't need to do something = it was not necessary to do it. It doesn't matter whether he did it

Should

• Should do something = it is a good thing to do or the right thing to do. You can use should to give advice or to give an opinion. You look tired. You should go to bed.
• Should is not as strong as must or have to You should apologise. (=it would be a good thing to do)
• You can use should when something is not right Where's Tina? She should be here by now. (=she isn't here yet, and this is not normal)
• You can use should when we expect something to happen There are plenty of hotels. It shouldn't be hard to find one. (= I don't expect it to be hard)
• You should have done something (=you didn't do it, but it would have been the right thing to do) You missed a great party last night. You should have come.
• You shouldn't have done something (=you did it, but it was the wrong thing to do) I shouldn't have eaten so much.
• You can use ought to instead of should
• You can use should after: insist, recommend, suggest, demand, propose. I insisted that he should apologise. I insisted that he apologise (the subjunctive form of the above)
• It's important/vital/necessary/essential that ... should It's essential that everyone should be here on time lt's essential that everyone is here on time (the subjunctive form of the above)
• After suggest, you cannot use to ... ('to do I to buy' etc.) What do you suggest we should do What do you suggest we do (not What do you suggest us to do?)
• Should something happen = If something should happen Should the situation change, we will contact you.
• You can use I should... I shouldn't... to give somebody advice. Shall I leave now? No, I should wait a bit. (I would wait if I were you)

Had better

• I had better do something = it is advisable to do it. If I don't do it, there will be a problem or a danger. Had is a past verb but here it means present or future. In speaking we usually use its short form I/We'd. We also don't use to, see examples below. I have to meet Amy in ten minutes. I had(I'd) better go now or I'll be late. We'd better stop for petrol soon. The tank is almost empty.
• Had better is similar to should. We use had better only for a specific situation, not for things in general. It's late. You'd better go/You should go. (a specific situation) You're always at home. You should go out more often. (in general)
  • should does not imply any danger or problem in future. It's a great film . You should go and see it. (but no problem if you don't) The film starts at 8.30. You'd better go now or you'll be late.

It's time

• It's time (for somebody) to ... It's time to go home = It's time for us to go home.
• When we use it's time + past (we went, I did), the meaning is present, not past. It's time they were here. Why are they so late?
• It's time somebody did something= they should have already done it or started it. We often use this structure to criticise or to complain. It's about time makes criticism stronger. This situation can't continue. It's time you did something about it. It's about time he did something instead of just talking.

Would

• We use would ('d) / wouldn't when we imagine a situation or action (=we think of something that is not real) It would be nice to buy a new car, but we can't afford it. I wouldn't say anything in your situation.
• For the past we use would have done I didn't tell Sam what happened. He wouldn't have been pleased.
• Sometimes would/wouldn't is the past of will/won't. Amy promised that she wouldn't be late
• Somebody wouldn't do something = he/she refused to do it I tried to warn him, but he wouldn't listen to me
• You can also use would to talk about things that happened regularly in the past. Similarly to used to Whenever Richard was angry, he would(used to) walk out of the room.

Can, could, would you ...?

• We use can or could to ask people to do things. We also can use will and would but can/could are more usual Can(Could) you wait a moment, please?
• Do you think you could ... ? (not can)
• To ask for something we use: Can/Could/May I have. May is more formal. Can/Could/May I have these postcards, please?
• To ask to do something, we use Can/Could/May. Also we can use Do you mind if I/Is it OK if I Can/Could/May I come in? Is it OK if I come in?
• To offer to do something, we use Can I Can I help you?
• To offer or to invite, we use Would you like Would you like a cup of coffee?
• I would like ... is a polite way of saying what you want I'd like a cup of coffee

if I do / if I did

• When the choice is real we use if+present If we go by bus, it will be cheaper. (deciding now how to travel)
• When we imagine something that will not happen, or we don't expect that it will happen, we use if+ past. But the meaning is not past. (When they chose a train) If we went by bus, it would be cheaper If there was an election tomorrow, who would you vote for?
• We do not normally use would in the if-part of the sentence If we went by bus, it would be cheaper. (not If we would go) What would you do if you were bitten by a snake?
• But you can use if ... would when you ask somebody to do something I would be grateful if you would let me know your decision as soon as possible
• Could and might are also possible instead of would If I won a lot of money, I might/could buy a house. It would be useful if you could drive
• We use the past in the same way after wish. We use wish to say that we regret something now, that something is not as we would like it to be now. I wish I knew Paul's phone number. (I'd call him if I knew) It rains a lot here. I wish it didn't rain so much.

If I had known, I wish I had known

• We use if + had ('d) ... to talk about the past (if I had known/been/done etc.) I wasn't hungry. If I had been hungry, I would have eaten something. (past) I'm not hungry. If I was hungry, I would eat something. (now)
• I wish something had happened = I am sorry that it didn't happen. We regret something in the past. Usually the main point is an action that didn't happen in the past. I wish I'd known that Gary was ill. I would have gone to see him. (but I didn't know)
• Do not use would have .. . after wish. I wish it had been warmer when we were on holiday.
• Compare would (do) and would have (done) If I'd gone to the party last night, I would be tired now. (I am not tired now - present) If I'd gone to the party last night, I would have met lots of people. (I didn't meet lots of people - past)

Wish

• We say 'wish somebody something' (Luck I a happy birthday etc.). But you cannot say 'I wish that something happens'. We use hope in this situation. I wish you a pleasant stay here. I hope you have a pleasant stay here.
• I wish I could (do something)= I regret that I cannot do it I'm sorry I have to go. I wish I could stay longer. (but I can't)
• I wish I could have (done something) = I regret that I could not do it I hear the party was great. I wish I could have gone. (but I couldn't go)
• We use I wish ... would when we would like something to happen or change. Usually, the speaker doesn't expect this to happen. I wish it would stop raining so I could play outside. I wish you'd do(= you would do) something instead of just sitting and doing nothing
• I wish ... wouldn't ... to complain about things that people do repeatedly I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me
• We use I wish ... would ... to say that we want something to happen. But we do not use I wish ... would ... to say how we would like things to be I wish Sarah would come. (= I want her to come) I wish Sarah was (or were) here now. (not I wish Sarah would be)

Passive

• The passive is be (is/was etc.) + past participle (done/cleaned/seen etc.) I am employed by a company (present) How is it made? This house was built in 1961 (past) When was TV invented?
• Infinitive passive: (to) be + done/cleaned/seen Something must be done before its too late. I want to be left alone. The man couldn't walk and had to be carried The room will be cleaned later.
• Perfect passive: (to) have/had been + done/cleaned/seen The room should have been cleaned. If you had locked the car, it wouldn't have been stolen. Have you ever been bitten by a dog? The room looked nice. It had been cleaned.
• Continuous perfect: am/is/are + being (done) The room is being cleaned at the moment. The room was being cleaned when I arrived.
• When we use these verbs in the passive, most often we begin with the person: offer, give, ask, pay, show, teach, tell. The trick of them is that we can change passive subjects. The police were given the information. The information was given to the police.
• The passive of doing/seeing etc. is being done/being seen I don't like being told what to do We kissed without being seen
• I was born not I am born
• You can use get instead of be in the passive There was a fight at the party, but nobody got hurt. (nobody was hurt) I don't get invited to many parties. (= I'm not invited)
• We use get only when things happen. Jessica is liked by everybody. (not gets liked - this is not a 'happening')
• get exceptions which are not passive: get married, get divorced, get lost, get dressed, get changed.
• It is said to. Other verbs are possible: alleged believed considered expected known reported thought understood. It is said that he is 108 years old (People say that he is ...) He is said to be 108 years old. (the same as above) It is alleged that Bob hit a policeman. Bob is alleged to have hit a policeman It is alleged that the man was driving at 110 miles an hour. The man is alleged to have been driving at...
• In some cases (it is) supposed to ... = (it is) said to I want to see that film. It's supposed to be good. It was supposed to be a joke

Have something done

• We use have something done to say that we arrange for somebody else to do something for us. Lisa had the roof repaired. (=she arranged for somebody else to repair it) Did you have those curtains made?
• Order is important. The past participle (repaired/cut etc.) is after the object We are having the house painted this week Your hair looks nice. Have you had it cut?
• get is possible instead of have When are you going to get the roof repaired?
• We use have something done to say that something happens to somebody or their belongings. Often what happens is not nice Gary had his nose broken in a fight

Reported speech

• You want to tell somebody what Paul said. Direct speech. Paul said 'I'm feeling ill' Reported speech. Paul said that he was feeling ill. I told Lisa that I didn't have any money.
• We can leave out that. Paul said he was feeling ill.
• In general, the present form in direct speech changes to the past form in reported speech Anna: My parents are fine. Later you say: Anna said that her parents were fine. Anna: I'll phone you when I get back. Later: Anna told she would phone me when she got back
• The past simple can usually stay the same in reported speech, or you can change it to the past perfect Paul said 'I woke up feeling ill, so I didn't go to work.' Paul said (that) he woke up feeling ill, so he didn't go to work. Paul said (that) he had woken up feeling ill, so he hadn't gone to work.
• Cases when reported speech keeps the verb is when the situation stays the same. Paul said that his new job is boring. (The situation is still the same. His job is still boring now.) Helen told me that she wants to go to Canada next year. (Helen still wants to go to Canada next year.)
• if the situation has changed or finished, you must use a past verb Paul left the room suddenly. He said he had to go.
• Use a past form when there is a difference between what was said and what is really true. Sonia: Joe is in hospital. Later you see Joe on the street: I didn't expect to see you. Sonia said you were in hospital. (Sonia said that he was in hospital but he is not)
• For orders and requests we generally use infinitive. Especially with tell, ask The doctor told me to drink plenty of water. I told joe not to be late. Jackie asked me to help her. I didn't want to delay Helen, so I told her to not wait for me if I was late.

Say/tell

• If you say who somebody is talking to, use tell. Sonia told me that you were in hospital. (not Sonia said me) What did you tell the police? (not say the police)
• Otherwise use say Sonia said that you were in hospital. What did you say?
• We can use 'say something to somebody' Ann said goodbye to me and left. What did you say to the police?

Questions

Where were you born?

• Do not use do/does/did if who/what etc. is the subject of the sentence. Bill(subject) phoned Emma. Who phoned Emma? Who did Bill phone? What happened to you last night? (Something happened) Which bus goes to the centre?
• Position of prepositions in questions beginning Who/What/Which/Where ... ? Who do you want to speak to? Who does this book belong to? Where are you from? Which job has Tina applied for?
• Preposition + whom in formal style To whom do you wish to speak?
• Negative questions. Isn't it ... ? Didn't you... Didn't you hear the doorbell? I rang it three times. Haven't we met before?
• The meaning of yes and no in answers to negative questions Don't you want to go? Yes. (=Yes, I want). No. (I don't want)
• Why? Why don't we eat out tonight (not Why we don't eat) Why wasn't Emma at work yesterday?

Question as part of compound sentence

• When the question is part of a longer sentence we don't swap verbs. Do you know what time it is? (not what time is it) I don't know who those people are. Do you know what time the film starts? (not what time does the film start) I wonder why she left early. (not why did she leave)
• Use if or whether where there is no other question word (what, why etc.) Do you know whether(if) anybody saw you?
• The same in reported speech She asked whether I could speak any languages He asked me why I dressed like a pumpkin

Auxiliary verbs

• You can use an auxiliary verb (have, can't, was, do...) when you don't want to repeat something 'Do you like onions?' 'Yes, I do.' (=I like onions) 'Have you locked the door? 'Yes, I have' (I have locked) 'Does Simon live in London?' 'He did, but he doesn't any more.' 'Please help me' 'I'm sorry I would if I could but I can't'
• You can use auxiliary verbs to deny what somebody says 'You're sitting in my place.' 'No, I'm not.'
• We use have you? / isn't she? / do they? etc. to show interest in what somebody has said, or to show surprise. 'I've just seen Stephen.' 'Oh, have you? How is he?' 'Lisa isn't very well today.' 'Oh, isn't she? What's wrong with her?' 'It rained every day during our holiday.' 'Did it? What a shame!'
• We use auxiliary verbs with so, neither/nor and either. Verb before subject! 'I'm tired.' 'So am I.' (=I'm tired too) Sarah hasn't got a car and neither has Mark 'I never read newspapers.' 'Neither/Nor do I.' 'I don't know.' 'I don't either.'
• I think(hope...) so. After some verbs we use so when we don't want to repeat something. 'Are those people Korean?' 'I think so.' (= I think they are Korean) 'Will you be at home this evening?' 'I expect so.' 'Do you think it will rain?' 'I hope so. / I hope not.' 'Is it her?' 'I don't think so'/'I'm afraid so'

Yes/No

• For me as Russian it's the opposite to answer 'yes' on questions like 'Don't you like?'. I would answer 'Yes, I don't like' bet in English I should answer 'Yes, I like' or 'No, I don't like'.

Question tags

• When question is made by its end. Negative question tag after a positive sentence and vice versa. You're not going out today, are you? Yes (I'm going out) No (I'm not) Kate won't be late, will she? Kate will be here soon, won't she? You don't have a pen, do you? He had never met her before, had he?
• After Let's, the question tag is shall we. Let's go for a walk, shall we?
• After Don't, the question tag is will you. Don't be late, will You?
• After I'm, the question tag is aren't I (=am I not) I'm right, aren't I?

Verb + -ing (enjoy doing, ...)

• After some verbs we use -ing (not to ... ): enjoy mind suggest stop(give up) postpone(put off) admit avoid imagine finish consider deny risk fancy continue(go on, carry on) keep. I enjoy reading (not I enjoy to read) Would you mind closing the door? (not mind to close) When I'm on holiday, I enjoy not having to get up early.
• Verb + somebody + -ing I can't imagine George riding a motorbike. I don't mind being kept waiting. (I don't mind people keeping me)
• When you are talking about finished actions, you can say having done/stolen/said They admitted having stolen the money. (=They admitted stealing the money.)
• After some of the verbs you can also use that They denied that they had stolen the money. (= They denied stealing) Chris suggested that we went to the cinema. (= Sam suggested going)

Verb + to...

• After these verbs we use verb + to: offer agree refuse decide plan manage afford arrange fail forget promise threaten learn seem appear tend pretend claim want ask beg expect mean would like/prefer. It was late, so we decided to take a taxi home We decided not to go out because of the weather I pretended to be reading the paper You seem to have lost weight I was warned not to touch the switch.
• After dare/help you can use the infinitive with or without to. After negative dare we can't use to I wouldn't dare (to) tell him I daren't tell him Can you help me (to) move the table?
• After some verbs we can use a question word (what/whether/how etc.) + to... We asked how to get to the station. Do you understand what to do? Can somebody show me how to use this camera?
• After advise and allow, two structures are possible: verb + -ing, verb + object + to. I wouldn't advise staying in that hotel. I wouldn't advise anybody to stay in that hotel. Parking isn't allowed in front of the building. You aren't allowed to park in front of the building.
• Make, let have the structure verb + object + infinitive (without to). In passive form we use to I made him promise that... Let me carry your bag for you We were made to wait for two hours. (= They made us wait ...)
• These verbs can be followed by -ing or to... with no difference of meaning: begin start continue intend bother It started raining = it started to rain
• remember + -ing I remember doing something = I did it and now I remember this. I remembered to do something = I remembered that I had to do it, so I did it.
• Try to and try + -ing I tried to move the table but it was too heavy (attempt to do, in this case to move) I tried moving the table to the other side (attempt was done as a test/experiment) Try pressing the green button if smth does not work (try as an experiment)
• Need to and need + -ing I need to get more exercise (it is necessary for me to do it) Do you think this jacket needs cleaning? (needs to be cleaned)
• help to do = help do Everybody helped (to) clean up
• I can't help doing something = I can't stop myself doing it She tried to be serious, but she couldn't help laughing I'm sorry I'm so nervous. I can't help it. (I can't help being nervous)
• like, love, hate. When you talk about repeated actions, you can use -ing or to ... after them. But! We use -ing (not to ...) when we talk about a situation that already exists (or existed) General. Stephanie hates flying or Stephanie hates to fly. Situation exists now. Paul lives in Berlin now. He likes living there. Did you like being a student? I like doing something = I do it and I enjoy it I Like to do something = I think it is a good thing to do, but I don't necessarily enjoy it
• Would like / love / hate / prefer are usually followed by to
• I would like to have done something = I regret now that I didn't or couldn't do it.

Prefer / Rather

• You can use prefer to (do) or prefer -ing to say what you prefer in general I prefer to live in the country = I prefer living in the country
• I prefer something to something else I prefer basketball to football
• I prefer doing something to doing something else I prefer driving to flying
• I prefer to do something rather than (do) something else I prefer to drive rather than travel by train He prefers to live in the country rather than in a city
• We use would prefer to say what somebody wants in a specific situation (not in general). Would prefer to do something (not usually would prefer doing) I'd prefer to drive today. (In general. I prefer to drive)
• Would rather (do) = would prefer (to do). We use would rather + infinitive I would rather drive = I would prefer to drive I'd rather not go out this evening I'd rather stay at home tonight than go to the cinema.
• I'd rather somebody did something (not I'd rather somebody do). In this structure we use the past (drove, did etc.), but the meaning is present not past. I'd rather you made dinner now. (not I'd rather you make but I'd rather make dinner now.) I'd rather you didn't tell anyone what I said Are you going to tell Anna what happened? No. I'd rather she didn't know.

Preposition + -ing

• if a preposition (in/for/about etc.) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing. to can also be a preposition and we must use -ing Are you interested in working for us? Instead of eating home, we went to a cafe I am not good at studying Before going out, I phoned Sarah = Before I went out... I ran 10 km without stopping Are you looking forward to going on holiday? I'm fed up with people telling me what to do
• verb + preposition + object. approve, stop have some special cases I'm thinking about buying a house They accused us of not telling the truth I don't approve of people killing animals You can't stop me from doing what I want

Be/get used to something

• be used to something = it is not new or strange. We use -ing after it. She wasn't used to driving on the left. She had to get used to it. She got used to driving on the left after some practice. Now she is used to driving on the left. Also she will get used to driving on the right when she returns in the States.
• I used to do something vs I am used to doing We used to live in a village. We moved to London a few years ago and had to get used to living in the big city.

To..., for..., so that

• To... tells us the purpose of something: why somebody does/has/needs something or why something exists. We use it to explain This letter is to confirm the decisions we made I phoned the restaurant to reserve a table I need something to open this bottle with
• money/time/chance/opportunity/energy/courage (etc.) to do something Do you have much opportunity to practise your English? I need a few days to think about your proposal.
• for.. and to.. We stopped for petrol = We stopped to get petrol I had to run for the bus = I had to run to catch the bus I use this brush for washing the dishes = to wash the dishes (General) I went into the kitchen to wash the dishes (Not washing cause we explain why somebody does something) What did you do that for?
• We use so that (not to...) when the purpose is negative. With can and could. that can be omitted. Eat something now so (that) you won't (or don't) get hungry later. She's learning English so (that) she can study in Canada.

Adjective + to

It is difficult to understand him = He is difficult to understand. This is a difficult question to answer. (adjective + noun + to)

• Adjective + of you to It was nice of you to take me to the airport.
• Sorry to... surprised to Was Julia surprised to see you?
• The first / the next (etc.) + to ... I was the only one to arrive on time.
• sure/certain... to happen He is sure to forget things There is likely to be a lot of traffic

Some well-established phrases for -ing or to

• afraid to do for things we do intentionally; we can choose to do them or not. afraid of something happening = it is possible that something bad will happen (for example, an accident). I was afraid to eat that food I was afraid of getting sick by that food
• sorry to: to say we regret something that happens, to apologise at the time we do something. sorry for or sorry about (doing something) to apologise for something you did before. I've enjoyed my stay here. I'll be sorry to leave. I'm sorry to phone you so late, but I need to ask you something. I'm sorry for (or about) shouting at you yesterday.
• I want to (do)/I'd like to (do) - I'm thinking of (do)ing/I dream of (do)ing I failed to (do) - I succeeded in (do)ing I allowed them to (do) - I prevented/stopped them from (do)ing

See somebody do/doing

• I saw him do something = he did something (past simple) and I saw this. I saw him fall off the wall. Did you see the accident happen?
• Passive form He was seen to get in the car.
• I saw him doing something = he was doing something (past continuous) and I saw this. I saw him walking along the street.
• Both can be ok I've never seen her dance = I've never seen her dancing.
• We use these structures with see, hear and other verbs of input information. Did you notice anyone go out? Can you smell something burning?

-ing clauses.

(clause is a short sentence that consists of subject and predicate(сказуемое))

• When two things happen at the same time, we can use an -ing clause. Kate is in the kitchen making coffee = she is in the kitchen and she is making coffee A man ran out of the house shouting = he ran out of the house and he was shouting
• We use -ing when one action happens during another action. We use -ing for the longer action. We often use while, when in such sentences. Joe hurt his knee playing football. Joe hurt his knee while playing football. Be careful when crossing the road.
• When one action happens before another action, we use having (done) for the first action. You can also say after -ing. If the first action is short we can replace having done with doing Having finished her work, she went home. After finishing her work, she went home. Taking a key out of his pocket, he opened the door.
• You can use an -ing clause to explain something, or to say why somebody does something. Being a vegetarian, I don't eat any meat Having already seen the film twice, I didn't want to see it again.

Articles

• Articles before countable
• NO articles before uncountable, plural
• Countable or not is derived from the meaning Enjoy your trip. Have a good time ~ I can't wait. I don't have time. Two coffees and an orange juice ~ I don't like coffee.
• no articles with plurals even you can count them Jack has blue eyes. What awful shoes. "The news" is an exception and counts as singular.
• we use the with things that are known to be specific when we talk about them: moon, sea, sky, ground, floor, ceiling, door....
• Even if we don't mean a specific thing we still use the with: cinema, theatre, radio, dentist.
• No articles with: dinner, lunch, breakfast. But we use articles when there is an adjective with it. I had lunch an hour ago ~ I had a marvellous lunch an hour ago.
• No the before noun + number Look at page 29. (Not the page 29)
• Places that generally describe your status do not require articles. Like: school, university, prison, hospital, church. I am at school now (I'm a pupil and go to school in general) ~ At 12.30 I was at the school (I was in the specific building) Are your children at school today? (not specific building but their usual activity) How do your children get to and from school? They walk. The school isn't so far.
• No article with: go to bed, be in bed I'm going to bed now ~ I sat down at the bed (a specific part of furniture)
• No article with: go to work, be at work, start work...
• No article with: go home, be at home, get home...
• No article with: go to sea, be at sea (go, be on a voyage) She went to sea last summer ~ I'd like to live near the sea
• No articles when we are talking about things or people in general. I'm afraid of spiders. Do you like classical music, books? English people drink a lot of tea ~ The English people I know drink a lot of tea I like working with people who say hi(not all people, but 'people who say hi' is still general) Most people believe that marriage and family life are the basis of society. Someone gave me a book about the history of modern art ~ you can learn from history.
• No articles with: most people, most books.... Most books have title
• We use the when we talk about a particular type of animal, machine, musical instrument etc. Man is an exception in this rule. I'd like to have a piano ~ I can't play the piano When was the telephone invented?
• We use the + adjective (without a noun) to talk about groups of people. We cannot use it for single nouns, only plural. The young are careless these times.
• We can use the + nationality adjectives that end in -eh, -sh, -ese The French are famous lovers ~ Italians are famous for the spaghetti
• We use the in names with Republic, Kingdom, States Brazil ~ Russia ~ The Russian Federation ~ The USA
• We do not use the with Mr, Doctor, Unkle, President etc. + a name Call Doctor Johnson ~ Call the doctor
• We use the with the names of oceans, seas, rivers and canals we travelled near the Indian ocean and the Ghobi desert we live near the lake ~ we live near Lake Onega (Lake replaces the) the north of Brazil ~ northern Brazil ~ North America
• We use the with plural names of people and places the Taylors (the Taylor family), the Netherlands, the Bahamas
• We do not use the with "proper name"(имя собственное). This applies everywhere. Buckingham Palace (Buckingham is a proper name) ~ the Royal Palace (royal is an adjective) the University of Cambridge ~ Cambridge University
• Nouns that define a group of people are used with plural verb. The police are investigating. The staff at the company are not tired. Many people are happy.
• Sum of money, a period of time, a distance etc. as one thing Two miles isn't far. Three years is a long time. Fifty pounds was a cheap price.

Possessive

• On examples My sister's room. My sisters' room. A woman's hat (a hat for a woman, no particular woman). This isn't my book. It's Tom's. Mr and Mrs Carter's house
• For things, ideas etc., we normally use of the temperature of the water (not the water's temperature), the name of the book, the top of the hill, the back of the bar, the end of the month.
• 's can be used for an organisation (a group of people), a place, a time word the company's decision, the world's population, next week's meeting, a three weeks' holiday.
• On my own and by myself both mean 'alone'. Jack was sitting on his own(by himself) in a corner
• A friend of mine / a friend of yours Mike had an argument with a neighbour of his.

Reflexive pronouns(местоимения). Myself...

Amy had a great holiday. She really enjoyed herself. We had never met before so that we introduced ourselves to each other.

Some / any

• In general we use some (also somebody/someone/something) in positive sentences and any (also anybody etc.) in negative sentences. I want something to eat. ~ I don't want anything to eat. it's a very easy exam. Hardly anybody fails. (=almost nobody fails)
• In questions when we know that thing exists or we think it exists we use some. Otherwise any. Would you like something to eat? I can't find my bag. Has anybody seen it?
• Somebody/someone/anybody/anyone are singular words. But we use they/them/their after these words. Someone is here to see you. Someone has forgotten their umbrella. (=his or her umbrella) If anybody wants to leave early, they can.

Much, many, little, few, a lot, plenty

• much, little with uncountable. few, many with plural much luck, much time, little money, many people, few cars
• a lot of, lots of, plenty of with both uncountable and plural nouns a lot of luck, lots of time a lot of friends, lots of people plenty of money, plenty of ideas
• much is unusual in positive sentences (especially in spoken English) We didn't spend much money ~ We spent a lot of money. Do you see David much? ~ I see David a Lot.
• many years, many weeks, many days (not a lot of .. .) We've lived here for many years.
• little = not much, few = not many He has little time for other things. (=not much time, less time than he would like) It's very dry. We've had little rain. She has few friends there. (=not many, not as many as she would like)
• a little = some, a small amount We have a Little time before the train leaves.(a little time = some time, enough time to have a coffee) 'Do you speak English?' 'A little.' (so we can talk a bit)
• a few = some, a small number I have a few friends and we meet quite often. (a few friends = not many but enough to have a good time)

Al/All of, most/most of, no/none of

• all some any most much/many little/few no are used with noun without article and of when we talk about things in general. We cannot say 'all of cars', 'some of people' etc. All cars have wheels. Many accidents are caused by bad driving. No cars (somewhere on a notice board) Most tourists don't visit this part of the town. Sarah travels a lot in Europe. She has been to most of European countries. Not all birds can fly. For example, the penguins can't fly.
• all some any most much/many little/few no can be used with of and article when we talk about particular things. of can be omitted after all or half None of this money is mine. Half (of) this money is mine. It's a historic town. Many of the buildings are very old. Most of the time I sleep. Have you read any of these books? All (of) the flowers in this garden are beautiful.
• You can also use some/most etc. alone, without a noun. Some cars have four doors and some have two. A few of the shops were open, but most (of them) were closed. Half this money is mine, and half (of it) is yours.

Both/both of, neither/neither of, either/either of

• We use both/neither/either for two things. We don't use articles before them! We can use them without noun with enough context. They are as any/none/all for more than two. Both restaurants are very good. Neither restaurant is expensive. We can go to either restaurant. 'Do you want tea or coffee?' 'Either. I don't mind.'
• We use both of / neither of / either of + the/these/my/Tom's ... etc. So we say 'both of the restaurants', 'both of those restaurants' etc. but not both of restaurants. Both of these restaurants are very good. Neither of the restaurants we went to was (or were) expensive.
• neither... nor... Neither Chris nor Paul came to the party.
• either ... or ... I'm not sure where Maria's from. She's either Spanish or Italian.

All, every, whole

• We do not normally use all to mean everybody/everyone Everybody had a great time at the party. (not All enjoyed)
• But we say all of us /all of you /all of them All of us had a great time at the party. (not Everybody of us)
• You can say all I can / all you need etc., but we do not normally use all alone. No articles before all. He thinks he knows everything. (not he knows all)
• Exceptions to the above. He knows all about computers. All I've eaten today is a sandwich. (= the only thing I've eaten today)
• Every / everybody / everyone / everything are used with a singular verb Everybody has arrived.
• But we use they/them/their after everybody/everyone Everybody said they enjoyed themselves.
• We do not normally use whole with uncountable nouns. We use the/my/her etc. before whole. I've spent all the money you gave me. (not the whole money) her whole life ~ all her life

Each, every

• Sometimes we can use them interchangeably but! We use each when we think of things separately, one by one. We use every when we think of things as a group. The meaning is similar to all. There were four books on the table. Each book was a different colour. Kate loves reading. She has read every book in the library. There are computers in each(every) classroom in the school.
• You can use each alone (without a noun). You can't use every alone. None of the rooms was the same. Each(= each room) was different. I've read every one of these books
• Everyone (one word) is only for people(= everybody). Every one (two words) is for things or people, and is similar to each one. Everyone enjoyed the party. Sarah is invited to lots of parties and she goes to every one.

relative clauses

• We must use who/that/each when they are the subject of relative clause. who/that for people, that/which for things The woman who lives next door is a doctor = the woman - she live next door - is a doctor. What was the name of the horse which won the race?
• what = 'the thing(s) that' for some cases. What happened was my fault. (=the thing that happened) Did you hear what they said? (= the things that they said)
• We can omit who/that/each when they are the object of relative clause. The woman who I wanted to see was away on holiday. (who(= the woman) is the object, I is the subject) Have you found the keys you lost? (that is omitted but we can put it back and it's not a mistake)
• Position of prepositions (in/to/for etc.) in relative clauses. They are moved to the end of the relative. Are these the books you were looking for? Who was the man you were with in the cafe?
• We use whose in relative clauses instead of his/her/their. We use it mostly for people. we helped some people - their car had broken down ~ we helped some people whose car had broken down. I met a man whose sister knows you. (his sister knows you) ~ I met a man who knows you. (he knows you)
• Whom is possible instead of who when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause. It is a formal word and we do not often use it in this way. George is a person whom I admire very much
• You can use where in a relative clause to talk about a place The restaurant where we had lunch was near the airport.
• the day /the year /the time The last time (that) I saw Anna, she looked great.
• the reason The reason I'm phoning is to ask your advice.
• Relative clause that requires commas. When the relative clauses do not tell you which person or thing the speaker means, we use commas. Those clause bring extra information. In them we use who for people and which for things. No that. We stayed at the hotel you recommended. ~ We stayed at the Park Hotel, which a friend of ours recommended. This morning I met somebody I hadn't seen for ages ~ This morning I met Chris, who I hadn't seen for ages.
• In formal sentences we use preposition at the beginning of relative clause not at the end. In these cases we use whom instead of who. Also we can use plenty of different prepositions and nouns Mr Lee, to whom I spoke at the meeting, is... ~ Mr Lee, who I spoke at the meeting to, is... They asked me a lot of questions, most of which I couldn't answer. The building was destroyed in a fire, the cause of which was never established.
• which instead of what Sarah couldn't meet us, which was a shame. (not what was a shame. which = the fact that she couldn't)

-ing -ed clauses

• We use -ing to say what somebody(something) is(was) doing at a particular time. Do you know the woman talking to Tom? (now) I was woken up by a bell ringing. (a bell was ringing) Is there anybody waiting?
• Also -ing is used for general things that happen all the time. The road connecting the two villages is very narrow. (the road connects the two villages) I have a large room overlooking the garden.
• -ed clauses are passive. George showed me some pictures painted by his father. (they had been painted by his father) Most of the goods made in this factory are exported. There was a big red car parked outside the house.
• Somebody is bored if something (or somebody else) is boring. Or, if something is boring, it makes you bored.

Adjectives order

• First go opinion adjectives, second fact adjectives My brother lives in a nice new house. (nice - opinion, new - fact)

Adverbs and adjectives

• Many adverbs are made from an adjective + -ly. Some adjectives end in -ly: lovely, friendly, lively...
• Adjectives tell about a noun. Adverbs tell about a verb.
• Adjectives can be used after some verbs like: be, feel, look... Please be quiet (adjective). Please behave quietly (adverb)
• good is an adjective, well is an adverb. well can be an adjective with the meaning 'in good health'. Those boots were good and fitted me well 'How are you today?' 'I'm very well, thanks.' (well exception)
• Fast/hard/Late are adjectives and adverbs Kate is a hard worker. Kate works hard.

So, such

• We use so + adjective/adverb. We use such + (adjective) + noun I've got so much to do ~ I've got such a lot to do. I haven't seen you for so long ~ I haven't seen you for such a long time.

Enough, too

• We say enough/too ... for somebody/something. enough/too ... to do something. Does Joe have enough experience for the job? the food was very hot. We couldn't eat it. the food was so hot that we couldn't eat it. the food was too hot to eat. This chair isn't strong enough to stand on.

Quite/pretty/rather/fairly

• Quite/pretty/rather/fairly = less than 'very' but more than 'a little'.
• quite and pretty are similar in meaning. Pretty is an informal She's quite/pretty famous.
• quite goes before a/an quite an old house ~ a pretty old house
• quite also means 'completely'. not quite - not completely. I am quite sure. I am not quite(completely) sure. She was quite different from what I expected. (= completely different)
• rather is similar to quite and pretty. We often use rather for negative ideas. When it is used for positive, it means 'unusually'. Paul is rather shy. He doesn't talk very much. These oranges are rather good.
• fairly is weaker than quite/rather/pretty. For example, if something is fairly good, it is not very good and it could be better. My room is fairly big, but I'd prefer a bigger one.

Comparison better/more

• The comparative form is -er or more. -er for one syllable/two syllable that ends in -y. For others is more. early - earlier, serious - more serious.
• any/no + comparative it's no bigger than ours ~ it isn't any bigger than ours. This hotel is better than the other one, and it's no more expensive We have a lot to discuss. We need to start the meeting no later than 9.00
• Better and better / more and more These days more and more people are learning English.
• We use the...the... to say that one thing depends on another thing. The younger you are, the easier it is to learn. The sooner the better. The higher your income, the more tax you have to pay.
• as ... as Jack isn't as old as he looks. Petrol is twice as expensive as it was
• than me/than I am You don't know as much about cars as (me)/(I do) You are better than me/than I am. They've been very lucky. I wish we were as lucky as (them)/(they have been).

Superlative

• The superlative form is -est for short or most for long. After superlatives we normally use in with places, organisations and groups of people. For a period of time we normally use of. What's the longest river in the world? (not of the world) We had a nice room. It was one of the best in the hotel. (not of the hotel) Who is the youngest student in the class? (not of the class) Yesterday was the hottest day of the year.
• We often use the present perfect after a superlative What's the most important decision you've ever had to make?

Sentence order

• verb + object + place + time I met |my friend|(object) |on the way home|(place) |last night|(time)
• adverbs can be injected in the middle of the sentence. If the verb is a one-word then usually the adverb goes before it. For a two-word verb the adverb goes after the first. Of course some exceptions are possible. Helen always drives to work. The concert will probably be cancelled I always have to phone him we were also hungry
• Note that probably goes before a negative (isn't/won't etc.) I probably won't see you = I will probably not see you. (not I won't probably)

still, yet, no longer, any more(longer)

• no longer and any more(longer). no more is not possible. He no longer goes fishing ~ He does not go fishing any more
• still = continues. yet = until now. Usually goes with present perfect. He is still here ~ He hasn't gone yet Is she still looking for a place to live? ~ Has she found a place to live yet?
• already goes in the middle of the sentence Shall I tell Joe what happened or does he already know? We have already met.
• still has a stronger feeling than yet I sent him an invitation last week. He hasn't replied yet. (but I expect he will reply soon) I sent him an invitation weeks ago and he still hasn't replied. (he should have replied before now)

even

• even surprisingly unusual She has even met the president. Nobody enjoyed it, not even Amy. I don't even know your name
• even + though/if/when + subject + verb His Spanish isn't very good, even after three years in Spain. His Spanish isn't very good, even though he lived in Spain for three years. (not even he lived)

although / though / despite / in spite of

• After although we use a subject + verb. After in spite of or despite, we use a noun, a pronoun (this/that/what etc.) or -ing. We didn't go out because it was raining heavily. We went out although it was raining heavily. We went out (in spite of)/(depsite) the rain.
• though is the same as although. It's used mostly in the spoken where we often use it at the end of a sentence. We went out though it was raining heavily. The house isn't so nice. I like the garden though.

in case

• in case is not the same as if. We use in case to say why somebody does (or doesn't do) something. You do something now in case something happens later. I'll buy some more food in case Tom comes. (I'm going to buy food now because there is a possibility that Tom will come)
• Do not use will after in case. Use a present tense for the future. I'll leave my phone switched on in case Jane calls. (not in case Jane will call). I left my phone switched on in case Jane called. Can you check the list in case we forgot to buy something.
• In case of ... = if there is ... In case of emergency, call this number.

unless, as long as, providing

• unless = except if. you won't achieve anything unless you work harder Unless they are with an adult, children are not allowed to use the swimming pool.
• As long as / provided / providing = 'if' or 'on condition that' I'm playing tennis tomorrow providing it doesn't rain.
• When you are talking about the future, do not use will after unless/as long as/provided/providing. Use a present tense.

as

• as = (at the same time as) / because Just as I sat down, the door bell rang. As the day went on, the weather got worse. I couldn't contact David as he was on holiday.

like / as

• like = 'similar to'/'the same as'. You cannot use as in this way. As = in the same way as, or in the same condition as. We use as before subject + verb. What a beautiful house! Ifs like a palace. I didn't move anything. I left everything as it was. You're late as usual.

like / as if(though)

• As if and as though are more formal than like. After as if (or as though), we sometimes use the past when we are talking about the present. We use the past in the same way in other sentences with if and wish He ate as if he had not eaten for a week You didn't look like you were enjoying it I'm 20 years old, so please don't talk to me as if I was a child

during / while

• We use during + noun. We use while + subject + verb. I fell asleep during the movie. I fell asleep while I was watching TV
• When you are talking about the future, use the present (not will) after while What are you going to do while you're waiting?(not while you'll be waiting) I'm going to Singapore next week. I hope to see some friends of mine while I'm there.

by/until, by the time

• by = not later than. We use until (or till) to say how long a situation continues. I have to decide about the proposition by Friday I have to wait until Friday Joe will be away until Monday ~ Joe will be back by Monday.
• by the time something happens. Don't use will. It's too late to go to the bank now. By the time we get there, it will be closed. By the time we got to the cinema, the film had already started.

Preposition of time: at/on/in

• at for the time of day, on for days and dates, in for longer periods. Of course there are some exceptions like: in the morning/afternoon..., at the weekend, ... We travelled overnight and arrived at 5 o'clock in the morning I might not be at home on Tuesday morning, but I'll be there in the afternoon. Yuri Gagarin was the first to go into space on 12 April 1961
• Some times do not require preposition. They use some other word instead of preposition. I'll see you next Friday. I was here last June.

On/In time, At/In the end

• on time it happens at the time that was planned. in time (for something I to do something) = soon enough. At the end (of something) = at the time when something ends. In the end = finally. I like to get up in time to have a big breakfast before going to work.

in/at/on position

• Just a lots of examples to memorise. We use at for places when we want to say about the place without any concrete our position inside it, i.e place as a point. When we want to emphasise that the place is something with boundaries and we inside them, we use in. I can't remember that we use on for places. Usually in or at. We had dinner at the hotel. All the rooms in the hotel have air conditioning. My sister is at school On the whole I'm doing fine.

to/into/in/at

• for movement to a place/event (etc.) we use to. arrive is not movement so we use in/at with it. They have been to France twice ~ They live in France. They arrived in London ~ they got to London
• into for entering. The opposite of into is out of. We usually say 'get on/off a bus / a train / a plane'. She got into(in) the car and drove away.

by

• When we describe how we do something we use by + noun without the or a. Can I pay by credit card? Did you come here by car or on foot?
• For example in passive we use articles Have you ever been bitten by a dog? I missed her by five minutes
• by also means 'next to / beside' Come and sit by me. (=next to me)
• we don't use by for things that we use the door must have been opened with a key. (not by a key)

Noun + preposition

• just a bunch of have to know things There's no need for it. Nobody knew the reason for the delay. I had to pay for the damage to the other car. I hope we find a solution to the problem His attitude to his job is very negative. there is an advantage in (or to) doing something increase/decrease/rise/fall in

Adjective + preposition

• just a bunch of have to know things You are angry with me I am sorry about I was amazed by It was careless of you Why are you so rude to I'm tired of doing the same They were furious with us for making so much noise. I'm short of money Nobody was keen on that idea throw something to somebody (for somebody to catch) throw something at somebody/something (in order to hit them) shout at somebody (when you are angry) shout to somebody (so that they can hear you) I've applied for a job I've applied to a college/professor We discussed the topic We had a discussion about the topic I'm leaving my house for the airport He gave up his job to care for his elderly father. I don't care about the cost. I don't care how much it costs.
• When you think about something, you consider it, you concentrate your mind on it. When you think of something, the idea comes to your mind. Quite often we can use both. I can't think of anything else to say. I often think of (about) you I will have to think of an excuse His parents don't approve of what he does, but they can't stop him. Alex suffers from back pain I complimented her on her brilliant English I prefer on thing to another Translate into many languages

Phrasal verbs

• It is a verb with one of the words: in, on, down, etc. I turned on the light = I turned the light on. I turned it on. (not I turned on it) I'm moving in next week. I'm moving into my new flat on Friday be taken in (to be deceived) put out a fire (stop its burning) find out more about smth. put on a CD You put on some weight put off = delay call off = cancel
• verb + on = continue doing something The party went on until 4 o'clock
• get on = progress How are you getting on in your new job? get on with somebody = have a good relationship He doesn't get on with his boss.
• up air is made up mainly of nitrogen and oxygen do up a coat, shoelaces = fasten a coat
• back Look back (on something) = think about what happened in the past Live now. Don't look back all the time.