===========================================
Creating Generic Functions using PEAK-Rules
===========================================

PEAK-Rules is a highly-extensible framework for creating and using generic
functions, from the very simple to the very complex.  Out of the box, it
supports multiple-dispatch on positional arguments using tuples of types,
full predicate dispatch using strings containing Python expressions, and
CLOS-like method combining.  (But the framework allows you to mix and match
dispatch engines and custom method combinations, if you need or want to.)

Basic usage::

    >>> from peak.rules import abstract, when, around, before, after

    >>> @abstract()
    ... def pprint(ob):
    ...     """A pretty-printing generic function"""

    >>> @when(pprint, (list,))
    ... def pprint_list(ob):
    ...     print "pretty-printing a list"

    >>> @when(pprint, "isinstance(ob,list) and len(ob)>50")
    ... def pprint_long_list(ob):
    ...     print "pretty-printing a long list"

    >>> pprint([1,2,3])
    pretty-printing a list

    >>> pprint([42]*1000)
    pretty-printing a long list

    >>> pprint(42)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
    NoApplicableMethods: ...

PEAK-Rules works with Python 2.3 and up -- just omit the ``@`` signs if your
code needs to run under 2.3.  Also, note that with PEAK-Rules, *any* function
can be generic: you don't have to predeclare a function as generic.  (The
``abstract`` decorator is used to declare a function with no *default* method;
i.e., one that will raise ``NoApplicableMethods`` instead of executing a
default implementation, if no rules match the arguments it's invoked with.)

PEAK-Rules is still under development; it lacks much in the way of error
checking, so if you mess up your rules, it may not be obvious where or how you
did.  User documentation is also lacking, although there are extensive doctests
describing and testing most of its internals, including:

* `Introduction`_ (Method combination, porting from RuleDispatch)
* `Core Design Overview`_ (Terminology, method precedence, etc.)
* The `Basic AST Builder`_ and advanced `Code Generation`_
* `Criteria`_, `Indexing`_, and `Predicates`_
* `Syntax pattern matching`_

(Please note that these documents are still in a state of flux and some may
still be incomplete or disorganized, prior to the first official release.)

Source distribution snapshots are generated daily, but you can also update
directly from the `development version`_ in SVN.

.. _development version: svn://svn.eby-sarna.com/svnroot/PEAK-Rules#egg=PEAK_Rules-dev
.. _Introduction: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules#toc
.. _Core Design Overview: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Design
.. _Predicates: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Predicates
.. _Basic AST Builder: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/AST-Builder
.. _Code Generation: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Code-Generation
.. _Criteria: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Criteria
.. _Indexing: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Indexing
.. _Predicates: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Predicates
.. _Syntax pattern matching: http://peak.telecommunity.com/DevCenter/PEAK-Rules/Syntax-Matching

.. _toc:

.. contents:: **Table of Contents**

-----------------
Developer's Guide
-----------------

XXX basics tutorial should go here


Method Combination and Custom Method Types
==========================================

Sometimes, more than one method of a generic function applies in a given
circumstance.  For example, you might need to sum the results of a series of
pricing rules in order to compute a product's price.  Or, sometimes you'd like
a method to be able to modify the result of a less-specific method.

For these scenarios, you will want to use "method combination", either using
PEAK-Rules' built-in method decorators, or custom method types of your own.


Using ``next_method``
---------------------

By default, a generic function will only invoke the most-specific applicable
method.  However, if you add a ``next_method`` argument to the beginning of
an individual method's signature, you can use it to call the "next method"
that applies.  That is, the second-most-specific method.  If that method also
has a ``next_method`` argument, it too will be able to invoke the next method
after it, and so on, down through all the applicable methods.  For example::

    >>> from peak.rules import DispatchError

    >>> @abstract()
    ... def foo(bar, baz):
    ...     """Foo bar and baz"""

    >>> @when(foo, "bar>1 and baz=='spam'")
    ... def foo_one_spam(next_method, bar, baz):
    ...     return bar + next_method(bar, baz)

    >>> @when(foo, "baz=='spam'")
    ... def foo_spam(bar, baz):
    ...     return 42

    >>> @when(foo, "baz=='blue'")
    ... def foo_spam(next_method, bar, baz):
    ...     # if next_method is an instance of DispatchError, it means
    ...     # that calling it will raise that error (NoApplicableMethods
    ...     # or AmbiguousMethods)
    ...     assert isinstance(next_method, DispatchError)
    ... 
    ...     # but we'll call it anyway, just to demo the error
    ...     return 22 + next_method(bar, baz)

    >>> foo(2,"spam")   # 2 + 42
    44

    >>> foo(2,"blue")   # 22 + ...no next method!
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      File ... combiners.txt... in foo_spam
        return 22 + next_method(self,bar,baz)
    ...
    NoApplicableMethods: ...

Notice that ``next_method`` comes *before* ``self`` in the arguments if the
generic function is an instance method.  (If used, it must be the *very first*
argument of the method.)  Its value is supplied automatically by the generic
function machinery, so when you call ``next_method`` you do not have to care
whether the next method needs to know *its* next method; just pass in all of
the *other* arguments (including ``self`` if applicable) and the
``next_method`` implementation will do the rest.

Also notice that methods that do not call their next method do not need to have
a ``next_method`` argument.  If a method calls ``next_method`` when there are
no further methods available, ``NoApplicableMethods`` is raised.  Similarly,
if there is more than one "next method" and they are all equally specific
(i.e. ambiguous), then ``AmbiguousMethods`` is raised.

Most of the time, you will know when writing a routine whether it's safe to
call ``next_method``.  But sometimes you need a routine to behave differently
depending on whether a next method is available.  If calling ``next_method``
will raise an error, then ``next_method`` will be an instance of the error
class, so you can detect it with ``isinstance()``.  If there are no remaining
methods, then ``next_method`` will be an instance of ``NoApplicableMethods``,
and if the next method is ambiguous, it will be an ``AmbiguousMethods``
instance.  In either case, calling ``next_method`` will raise that error with
the supplied arguments.  (And ``DispatchError`` is a base class of both
``AmbiguousMethods`` and ``NoApplicableMethods``, so you can just check for
that.)


Before/After Methods
--------------------

Sometimes you'd like for some additional validation or notification to occur
before or after the "normal" or "primary" methods.  This is what "before",
"after", and "around" methods are for.  For example::

    >>> class BankAccount:
    ...
    ...     def __init__(self,balance,protection=0):
    ...         self.balance = balance
    ...         self.protection = protection
    ...
    ...     def withdraw(self,amount):
    ...         """Withdraw 'amount' from bank"""
    ...         self.balance -= amount      # nominal case
    ...
    ...     @before(withdraw, "amount>self.balance and self.protection==0")
    ...     def prevent_overdraft(self, amount):
    ...         raise ValueError("Insufficient funds")
    ...
    ...     @after(withdraw, "amount>self.balance")
    ...     def automatic_overdraft(self, amount):
    ...         print "Transferring",-self.balance,"from overdraft protection"
    ...         self.protection += self.balance
    ...         self.balance = 0

    >>> acct = BankAccount(200)
    >>> acct.withdraw(400)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
    ValueError: Insufficient funds

    >>> acct.protection = 300
    >>> acct.withdraw(400)
    Transferring 200 from overdraft protection
    >>> acct.balance
    0
    >>> acct.protection
    100

This specific example could have been written entirely with normal ``when()``
methods, by using more complex conditions.  But, in more complex scenarios,
where different modules may be adding rules to the same generic function, it's
not possible for one module to predict whether its conditions will be more
specific than another's, and whether it will need to call ``next_method``, etc.

So, generic functions offer ``before()`` and ``after()`` methods, that run
before and after the ``when()`` (aka "primary") methods, respectively.  Unlike
primary methods, ``before()`` and ``after()`` methods:

* Are allowed to have ambiguous conditions (and if they do, they execute in the
  order in which they were added to the generic function)

* Are *always* run when their conditions apply, with no need to call
  ``next_method`` to invoke the next method

* Cannot return a useful value and do not have access to the return value of
  any other method

The overall order of method execution is:

1. All applicable ``before()`` methods, from most-specific to least-specific,
   methods at the same level of specificity execute in the order they were
   added.

2. Most-specifc primary method, which may optionally chain to less-specific
   primary methods.  ``AmbiguousMethods`` or ``NoApplicableMethods`` may be
   raised if the most-specific method is ambiguous or no primary methods are
   applicable.

3. All applicable ``after()`` methods, from *least-specific* to most-specific,
   with methods at the same level of specificity executing in the reverse order
   from the order they were added.  (In other words, the more specific the
   ``after()`` condition, the "more after" it gets run!)

If any of these methods raises an uncaught exception, the overall function
execution terminates at that point, and methods later in the order are not
run.


"Around" Methods
----------------

Sometimes you need to recognize certain special cases, and perhaps not run
the entire generic function, or need to alter its return value in some way,
or perhaps trap and handle certain exceptions, etc.  You can do this with
"around" methods, which run "around" the entire "before/primary/after" sequence
described in the previous section.

A good way to think of this is that it's as if the "around" methods form a
separate generic function, whose default (least-specific) method is the
original, "inner" generic function.

When "around" methods are applicable on a given invocation of the generic
function, the most-specific "around" method is invoked.  It may then choose
to call its ``next_method`` to invoke the next-most-specific "around" method,
and so on.  When there are no more "around" methods, calling ``next_method``
instead invokes the "before", "primary", and "after" methods, according to
the sequence described in the previous section.  For example::

    >>> @around(BankAccount.withdraw, "amount > self.balance")
    ... def overdraft_fee(next_method,self,amount):
    ...     print "Adding overdraft fee of $25"
    ...     return next_method(self,amount+25)

    >>> acct.withdraw(20)
    Adding overdraft fee of $25
    Transferring 45 from overdraft protection

Values
------

Sometimes, if you're defining a generic function whose job is to classify
things, it can get to be a pain defining a bunch of functions or lambdas just
to return a few values -- especially if the generic function has a complex
signature!  So ``peak.rules`` provides a convenience function, ``value()``
for doing this::

    >>> from peak.rules import value
    >>> value(42)
    value(42)

    >>> value(42)('whatever')
    42

    >>> classify = abstract(lambda age:None)
    
    >>> when(classify, "age<2")(value("infant"))
    value('infant')
    
    >>> when(classify, "age<13")(value("preteen"))
    value('preteen')

    >>> when(classify, "age<5")(value("preschooler"))
    value('preschooler')

    >>> when(classify, "age<20")(value("teenager"))
    value('teenager')

    >>> when(classify, "age>=20")(value("adult"))
    value('adult')

    >>> when(classify, "age>=55")(value("senior"))
    value('senior')
    
    >>> when(classify, "age==16")(value("sweet sixteen"))
    value('sweet sixteen')

    >>> classify(17)
    'teenager'

    >>> classify(42)
    'adult'


Method Combination
------------------

The ``combine_using()`` decorator marks a function as yielding its method
results (most-specific to least-specific, with later-defined methods taking
precedence), and optionally specifies how the resulting iteration will be
post-processed::

    >>> from peak.rules import combine_using

Let's take a look at how it works, by trying it with different ways of
postprocessing on an example generic function.  We'll start by defining a
function to recreate a generic function with the same set of methods, so
you can see what happens when we pass different arguments to ``combine_using``::

    >>> class A: pass
    >>> class B(A): pass
    >>> class C(A, B): pass
    >>> class D(B, A): pass

    >>> def demo(*args):
    ...     """We'll be setting this function up multiple times, so we do it in
    ...        a function.  In normal code, you won't need this outer function!
    ...     """
    ...     @combine_using(*args)
    ...     def func(ob):
    ...         return "default"
    ...
    ...     when(func, (object,))(value("object"))
    ...     when(func, (int,))   (value("int"))
    ...     when(func, (str,))   (value("str"))
    ...     when(func, (A,))     (value("A"))
    ...     when(func, (B,))     (value("B"))
    ...
    ...     return func

In the simplest case, you can just call ``@combine_using()`` with no arguments,
and get a generic function that yields the results returned by its methods,
in order from most-specific to least-specific::

    >>> func = demo()

    >>> list(func(A()))
    ['A', 'object', 'default']

    >>> list(func(42))
    ['int', 'object', 'default']

In the event of ambiguity between methods, methods defined later are called
first::

    >>> list(func(C()))
    ['B', 'A', 'object', 'default']

    >>> list(func(D()))
    ['B', 'A', 'object', 'default']

Passing a function to ``@combine_using()``, however, makes it wrap the result
iterator with that function, e.g.::

    >>> func = demo(list)

    >>> func(A())
    ['A', 'object', 'default']

While including ``abstract`` anywhere in the wrapper sequence makes the
function abstract (i.e., it omits the original function's body from the defined
methods)::

    >>> func = demo(abstract, list)

    >>> func(A())  # 'default' isn't included any more:
    ['A', 'object']
    
You can also include more than one function in the wrapper list, and they
will be called on the result iterator, first function outermost, ignoring
any ``abstract`` in the sequence::

    >>> func = demo(str.title, ' '.join)

    >>> func(B())
    'B A Object Default'

    >>> func = demo(str.title, abstract, ' '.join)
    
    >>> func(B())
    'B A Object'

Some stdlib functions you might find useful for ``combine_using()`` include:

* ``itertools.chain``
* ``sorted``
* ``reversed``
* ``list``
* ``set``
* ``"".join`` (or other string)
* ``any``
* ``all``
* ``sum``
* ``min``
* ``max``

(And of course, you can write and use arbitrary functions of your own.)

By the way, when using "around" methods with a method combination, the
innermost ``next_method`` will return the *fully processed* combination of
all the "when" methods, with the "before/after" methods running before and
after the result is returned::

    >>> from peak.rules import before, after, around

    >>> def b(ob): print "before"
    >>> def a(ob): print "after"
    >>> def ar(next_method, ob):
    ...     print "entering around"
    ...     print next_method(ob)
    ...     print "leaving around"

    >>> b = before(func, ())(b)
    >>> a = after(func, ())(a)
    >>> ar = around(func, ())(ar) 

    >>> func(B())
    entering around
    before
    after
    B A Object
    leaving around


Custom Method Types
-------------------

If the standard before/after/around/when/combine_using decorators don't work
for your application, you can create custom ones by defining your own "method
types" and decorators.

Suppose, for example, that you are using a "pricing rules" generic function
that operates by summing its methods' return values to produce a total::

    >>> @combine_using(sum)
    ... def getPrice(product, customer=None, options=()):
    ...     """Get this product's price"""
    ...     return 0    # base price for arbitrary items

    >>> class Product:
    ...     @when(getPrice)
    ...     def __addBasePrice(self, customer, options):
    ...         """Always include the product's base price"""
    ...         return self.base_price

    >>> @when(getPrice, "'blue suede' in options")
    ... def blueSuedeUpcharge(product,customer,options):
    ...     return 24

    >>> getPrice("arbitrary thing")
    0

    >>> shoes = Product()
    >>> shoes.base_price = 42

    >>> getPrice(shoes)
    42

    >>> getPrice(shoes, options=['blue suede'])
    66

This is useful, sure, but what if you also want to be able to compute discounts
or tax as a percentage of the total, rather than as flat additional amounts?

We can do this by implementing a custom "method type" and a corresponding
decorator, to let us mark rules as computing a discount instead of a flat
amount.

We'll start by defining the template that will be used to generate our
method's implementation.

This format for method templates is taken from the DecoratorTools package's
``@template_method`` decorator.  ``$args`` is used in places where the original
generic function's calling signature is needed, and all local variables should
be named so as not to conflict with possible argument names.  The first
argument of the template method will be the generic function the method is
being used with, and all other arguments are defined by the method type's
creator.

In our case, we'll need two arguments: one for the "body" (the discount
method being decorated) and one for the "next method" that will be called to
get the base price::

    >>> def discount_template(__func, __body, __next_method):
    ...     return """
    ...     __price = __next_method($args)
    ...     return __price - (__body($args) * __price)
    ...     """

Okay, that's the easy bit.  Now we need to define a bunch of other stuff to
turn it into a method type and a decorator::

    >>> from peak.rules.core import Around, MethodList, compile_method, \
    ...     combine_actions

    >>> class DiscountMethod(Around):
    ...     """Subtract a discount"""
    ...
    ...     def override(self, other):
    ...         if self.__class__ == other.__class__:
    ...             return self.override(other.tail)  # drop the other one
    ...         return self.tail_with(combine_actions(self.tail, other))
    ...
    ...     def compiled(self, engine):
    ...         body = compile_method(self.body, engine)
    ...         next = compile_method(self.tail, engine)
    ...         return engine.apply_template(discount_template, body, next)
    
    >>> discount_when = DiscountMethod.make_decorator(
    ...     "discount_when", "Discount price by the returned multiplier"
    ... )

    >>> DiscountMethod >> MethodList    # mark precedence
    <class 'peak.rules.core.MethodList'>

The ``make_decorator()`` method of ``Method`` objects lets you create
decorators similar to ``when()``, that we can now use to add a discount::

    >>> @discount_when(getPrice, 
    ...    "customer=='Elvis' and 'blue suede' in options and product is shoes"
    ... )
    ... def ElvisGetsTenPercentOff(product,customer,options):
    ...     return .1

    >>> getPrice(shoes)
    42

    >>> print getPrice(shoes, 'Elvis', options=['blue suede'])
    59.4

    >>> getPrice(shoes, 'Elvis')     # no suede, no discount!
    42


XXX
    This is still pretty hard; but without some real-world use cases for
    custom methods, it's hard to tell how to streamline the common cases.


Porting Code from RuleDispatch
==============================

The major design differences between PEAK-Rules and RuleDispatch are:

1. It's designed for extensibility/pluggability from the ground up

2. It's built from the ground up using generic functions instead of adaptation,
   so its code is a lot more straightforward.  (The current implementation,
   combined with all its dependencies, is roughly the same number of lines as
   RuleDispatch *without* any of its dependencies -- and already has features
   that can't even be *added* to RuleDispatch.)

3. It generates custom bytecode for each generic function, to minimize calling
   and interpreter overhead, and to potentially allow compatibility with Psyco
   and PyPy in the future.  (Currently, neither Psyco nor PyPy support the
   "computed jump" trick used in the generated code, so don't try to
   Psyco-optimize any generic functions yet - it'll probably core dump!)

Because of its exensible design, PEAK-Rules can use custom-tuned engines for
specific application scenarios, and over time it may evolve the ability
to accept "tuning hints" to adjust the indexing techniques for special cases.

PEAK-Rules also supports the full method combination semantics of RuleDispatch
using a new decentralized approach, that allows you to easily create new method
types or combination semantics, complete with their own decorators (like
``when``, ``around``, etc.)

These decorators also all work with *existing* functions; you do not have to
predeclare a function generic in order to use it.  You can also omit the
condition from the decorator call, in which case the effect is the same as
RuleDispatch's ``strategy.default``, i.e. there is no condition.  Thus, you
can actually use PEAK-Rules's ``around()`` as a quick way to monkeypatch
existing functions, even ones defined by other packages.  (And the decorators
use the ``DecoratorTools`` package, so you can omit the ``@`` signs for
Python 2.3 compatibility.)

RuleDispatch was always conceived as a single implementation of a single
dispatch algorithm intended to be "good enough" for all uses.  Guido's argument
on the Py3K mailing list, however, was that applications with custom dispatch
needs should write custom dispatchers.  And I almost agree -- except that I
think they should get a RuleDispatch-like dispatcher for free, and be able to
tune or write ones to plug in for specialized needs.

The kicker was that Guido's experiment with type-tuple caching (a predecessor
algorithm to the Chambers-and-Chen algorithm used by RuleDispatch) showed it to
be fast *enough* for common uses, even without any C code, as long as you were
willing to do a little code generation.  The code was super-small, simple, and
fast enough that it got me thinking it was good enough for maybe 50% of what
you need generic functions for, especially if you added method combination.

And thus, PEAK-Rules was born, and RuleDispatch doomed to obsolescence.  (It
didn't help that RuleDispatch was a hurriedly-thrown-together experiment, with
poor testing and little documentation, either.)

So, if you are currently using RuleDispatch, we strongly advise that you port
your code.  To convert the most common RuleDispatch usages, simply do the
following:

* Replace ``@dispatch.on()`` and ``@dispatch.generic()`` with ``@abstract()``

* Replace ``@func.when(sig)`` with ``@when(func, sig)`` (and the same for
  ``before``, ``after``, and ``around``)

* When replacing ``@func.when(type)`` calls where ``func`` was defined with
  ``@dispatch.on``, use ``@func.when("isinstance(arg, type)")``, where ``arg``
  is the argument that was named in the ``@dispatch.on()`` call.


RuleDispatch Emulation
----------------------

If your code doesn't use much of the RuleDispatch API, you may be able to use
PEAK-Rules' "emulation API", which supports the following RuleDispatch APIs:

* ``dispatch.on``, ``dispatch.generic``, and dispatch.as``

* ``strategy.default``, ``strategy.Min``, ``strategy.Max``

* ``DispatchError``, ``NoApplicableMethods``, and ``AmbiguousMethod`` errors

* The ``when()``, ``before()``, ``after()`` and ``around()`` methods of generic
  functions.

(Note that some APIs may issue deprecation warnings (e.g. ``dispatch.as``), and
over time, the entire API will be deprecated.  Please update your code as soon
as practical.)

The emulation API does NOT support:

* custom combiners (use custom method types instead)

* The ``addMethod`` or ``__setitem__`` APIs for adding rules

* the ``clone()`` method of generics created with ``dispatch.on``

* PyProtocols (i.e., interfaces cannot be used for dispatching)

In the future, a PyProtocols emulation API may be added, but it doesn't exist
yet.

To use the emulation API, simply import ``dispatch`` from ``peak.rules``::

    >>> from peak.rules import dispatch

    >>> @dispatch.generic()     # roughly equivalent to @abstract()
    ... def a_function(an_arg, other_arg):
    ...     """Blah"""

    >>> @a_function.when((int, str))
    ... def a_when_int_str(an_arg, other_arg):
    ...     print "int and str"

    >>> a_function(42, "blue")
    int and str

    >>> a_function("blue", 42)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
    NoApplicableMethods: (('blue', 42), {})
    
Whether you use ``dispatch.generic`` or ``dispatch.on`` to define a generic
function, you can begin using ``peak.rules.when`` to declare methods
immediately::

    >>> @when(a_function, (str, int))
    ... def a_when_str_int(an_arg, other_arg):
    ...     print "str and int"

    >>> a_function("blue", 42)
    str and int

This means that you don't have to update your entire codebase at once; you can
port your method definitions incrementally, if desired.


------------
Mailing List
------------

Please direct questions regarding this package to the PEAK mailing list; see
http://www.eby-sarna.com/mailman/listinfo/PEAK/ for details.